With the exception of noble gases, atoms are rarely found uncombined

in nature.
• A substance that*s made up of only one kind of atom is called an element.
So, all the atoms of an element are identical.
• The atoms of different elements combine through chemical bonds to
form more complex substances called compounds.
Atoms combine with each other to increase their stability. They yyill gain, lose
or share electrons to complete their outermost shell with eight electrons.
The interactions that hold atoms together to form chemical compounds are
called chemical bonds. There are three types of chemical bonds:
• Covalent: in this type of chemical bond, atoms share electrons to
complete their valence shell.

• Ionic: in this type chemical bond, one or more electrons from one atom
are attached to the other atom to complete their valence shell. This
results in oppositely charged ions that attract.
• Metallic: in this type of chemical bond free electrons are shared among
positively charged metal ions.
The type of bond is partially responsible for many properties of a substance:
• Boiling and melting points: stronger bonds have higher boiling and
melting points.
• Conductivity: the presence of free electrons makes the
substance a good conductor.
• Solubility: weaker bonds and the presence of ions increases the solubility
of a substance.
• Malleability: weaker bonds in metals make them more malleable.
• Hardness: stronger bonds make substances harder.

Atoms combine and group together to give us the great variety of

substances we see in nature. These groups of atoms can be presented
in the form of molecules and crystals.
 Graphite crystal

H CI

Hydrogen chloride molecule

O In your notebook, classifY the following substances O Listen to the teacher and write down what
into e/ements or compounds: He, H2O, N2, O„ Ne, intermolecular bonds are and how they’re diPerent
NaCI, C (diamond), Zn, SiO2, CO2, NaOH and CO. from intramolecular bonds.

Write down the electron configuration of Rb, F,

and Ca. Which type of bond will occur between the
following elements?
a. Rb and F b. F and F
c. F and Ca.
Explain your answers to a
classmate.

Molecules are groups of only a few atoms held together by covalent bonds.
The atoms that form molecules are non-metals.
Most of the non-metallic elements form molecules of two atoms of the
same element. They are called diatomic molecules (Hi, Of, Nd, F2 or CI2).
Many compounds formed by the union of different non-metallic elements
also form molecu Yes. For example, hydrogen chloride (HCI), ammonia (NH 3),
water (H2O) or methane (CHP).
The physical and chemical properties of molecules depend on the type of
molecule that’s formed. However, in general terms:
• Diatomic molecules are usually gaseous at room temperature. Compounds
can be solid, liquid or gas at room temperature. This depends on the
number of atoms in the compound.
 • Compounds are usually insoluble in water and soluble in solvents, such as
acetone and gasoline.
• Diatomic molecules have low melting and boiling points. Compounds
have melting and boiling points that depend on the number of atoms
they have. The more atoms in each molecule, the higher a compound’s
melting and boiling points are.
• Compounds, not having free electrons, can*t conduct electric current.
Fluorine diatomic molecule: fluorine has seven electrons in its valence shell: 2 5
If both fluorine atoms share two electrons, each atom is surrounded by eight
electrons, so they both complete their valence shell and become more stable.

Pair of shared
electrons

The two fluorine atoms combine by a covalent bond.

The water molecule, a special case: HCO is formed by the bond of an oxygen
atom and two hydrogen atoms.
Electron configuration of O: 2 4 — it needs 2e- to complete the valence shell.
Electron configuration of H: 1 — it needs 1e- to complete the valence shell.

The oxygen atom shares a pair of electrons with each of the hydrogen
atoms. This way the three atoms complete their valence shell.
However, the three atoms aren’t aligned. They form an angle of 104.5°
and, therefore, the charges aren’t symmetrically distributed. This creates
polarity1 in the water molecule which is why we say that it’s a dipole2. Due to
this polarity, water has very unique properties:
• Its melting point is 0 °C; its boiling point at 1 atm pressure is 100 °C.
• It’s a liquid at room temperature.
• Water density is at its maximum between 0 °C and 4 °C. Below 0 °C or
above 4 °C, water density decreases, which is why ice floats on liquid water.
 ¢LIL activities
Choose the sentences
that describe the properties of
diatomic molecules? Write them
in your notebook.
a. They’re formed between
non-metals.
b. They’re good conductors.
c. Their atoms share
electrons to bond.
d. They’re gaseous at room
temperature.
e. They’ve high melting points.
›
i,fififi Listen and complete the
sentences.
. Which of these
elements are presented in
nature as diatomic molecules?
Discuss with a classmate.
Elements: copper, helium,
carbon, fluorine, nickel,
hydrogen, carbon, argon.

When a metal combines with another metal or non-metal atom, they form
highly ordered microscopic structures we call crystals. They can be covo/ent,
ionic or metollic, depending on the type of bond between atoms.

C I e t f'a h te C St S a dd I d
0 Work with a classmate to decide if this sentence ”* ' f ' ” “* ' f' l ' ’I
is true or false. Justify your answer. ’
The e/ectrons in a metal crystal 6e/ong to a portico/or
atom.
 Na+
Consist of alternating positively charged
cations and negatively charged anions.
When an ionic crystal forms, electrostatic
attraction isn’t limited to a single pair of ions. Each atom is covalently bonded to
Each ion is surrounded‘ by the maximum
possible ions of the opposite charge. This
makes ionic bonds in a crystal very strong.
Sonic crystals form compounds through
the ionic bond of a metal with a non -metal
element.
Properties:
• Hard with high melting and boiling
points: opposite charges attract forming
strong ionic bonds, making it hard to
break the crystal structure.
• Highly soluble in water: due to the
polarity of the water molecule, it
attracts the positive and negative ions
from the crystal structure, breaking the
bonds between them. Each ion is then
surrounded by water molecules that
preve nt them from making new bond s.
• Not good conductors: in a solid state,
there are no free electrons or ions.
However, when dissolved, the ions are
free to move around and the solution
conducts electricity.
its nearest neighbouring atoms. The
result is a three-dimensional network
with a very large number of atoms.
Diamonds and quartz are examples
of covalent crystals. Covalent
crystals form compounds through
the covalent bond of two non -metal
elements.
Properties:
• High melting and boiling points:
covalent bonds are strong,
making it hard to break the crystal
structure.
• Very hard: each atom is attached
to several other atoms with strong
bonds.
• Don’t dissolve in water: covalent
bonds are strong and they don’t
have an electric charge.
• Don’t conduct electric current:
have no free electrons.
Diamonds form a large, very strong
network, in which each atom
shares four electrons in different
directions.
Metal
bonds
All atoms that form a metal crystal
are bonded together by metal bonds.
/\/\etaI atoms have few electrons in
their outermost shell (one, two or
three valence electrons). In a metal
crystal, the atoms that form the
crystal are positive ions that have lost
these valence electrons to a sea of
shared electrons among the positive
ions in the crystal.
Properties:
• Hard with high melting and boiling
points: metallic bonds are strong,
so metals can maintain a regular
structure.
• Malleable and ductile: the shared
electrons allow metal atoms to
slide over eacn other.
• Good electrical conductors: the
electrons are free to move around
the crystal.
 How tomtasurc tht yroptrtics of substances $%
Let’s look at four everyday substances: water (H2O ), salt (NaCI), copper
(Cu) and quartz. Water is a covalent molecule; NaCI an ionic crystal; copper
a metallic crystal; and quartz a covalent crystal.

t H2O: we use distilled t

. water, as tap water has
. “.....................................:
diluted substances in it .

:””“““”““““““”.
t A quartz crystal of t , Cuc:opper wires ,
:•....fi.....!... ...............

We want to determine the following properties:

• State of aggregation’ and brightness: we can observe them directly.
• Solubility: we can add a few tablespoons of salt in water and stir. The salt
dissolves in water. However, the copper wires and the quartz will never
dissolve in water no matter how much we stir or heat the solution.
• Conductivity: we touch the substance we want to measure with two
electrodes connected to a circuit with a battery and a light bulb. Salt crystals
don’t conduct electrical current (the light bulb doesn’t light up). However,
the solution of salt in water, prepared above, does.

liquid solid solid solid

translucid metallic translucid
high no no
no yes no
yes

1s For the following substances: diamond, calcium
carbonate in the form of marble, silver and sodium
chloride, list the properties a—d. Write your answers
in your notebook.
a. the state of aggregation at room temperature
b. the solubility in water
c. the conductivity
d. the conductivity in a solution of water
Which of the following properties apply to graphite?
a. It’s a very hard solid.
b. It’s ductile and malleable.
c. It’s a soft and smooth solid.
d. It’s a good conductor of electricity.
e. It’s not soluble in water.
Listen and take notes. Explain to a classmate
why ionic crystals are both strong and fragile.