BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN PHARMACY:

PHYSICAL PHARMACY

Topic: Forces of Attraction

Expected Outcomes:
At the end of this unit, the students are expected to:
 What are the two forces of attraction in compounds?
 Explain the difference between intramolecular and intermolecular forces of attraction
 Name and describe the types of intramolecular forces that hold groups of molecular together

Required Readings:
Sinko, P.J., Martin’s Physical Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences. Philadelphia, PA : Wolters
Kluwer. 2017
Smith, B. Remington Education: Physical Pharmacy. London :Pharmaceutical Press. 2016
Kumar, D. S. ) Applied thermodynamics. S. K. Kataria & Sons. 2017
Helmer, Erica Drug design and medicinal chemistry Callisto Reference. 2015
Atkins Elements of Physical Chemistry. 2017

Notes:

FORCES OF ATTRACTION

Introduction
• Atoms aggregate to form molecules and lattice. Molecules aggregate to form condensed
phases of matter. Aggregation of atoms, appositively charged ions and molecules is a
consequence of electrical forces exerted on the electrons of one particle by the nucleus (or
nuclei) of the other.
Two broad categories of forces of attraction
I. Intramolecular
 forces that exist within molecules or fundamental/formula units (forces that hold atoms or
ions in a compound)
II. Intermolecular
 forces of attraction that exist between the molecules in a compound

INTRAMOLECULAR FORCES
• Three types
1.Ionic or Electrovalent Bond - Electrostatic force of attraction between ions of opposite charge .
2. Covalent Bonds - Formed between atoms with a small difference in electronegativity
3. Metallic Bonds - Positive ions surrounded by a sea of mobile (delocalized) electrons.

Strong electrostatic force of attraction binds the system together

1.Ionic or Electrovalent Bond
• Electronegativity- the ability of an atom to attract (pull) electrons to itself.
• Electrostatic force depends on the charge on the ions.
• Properties
• Crystalline solids- rigidity and strength
• High melting and boiling points
• Conduct electricity in molten and aqueous state
• They are hard
• They are brittle
• Soluble in polar solvents such as water (solute-solvent interactions)

• Ionic bond
• bond is formed by the complete transfer of valence electron(s) between atoms.
• generates two oppositely charged ions.
• metal loses electrons to become a positively charged cation, whereas the nonmetal
accepts those electrons to become a negatively charged anion.
• Covalent bond
• this bond is formed between atoms that have similar electronegativities—the affinity
or desire for electrons.
• Because both atoms have similar affinity for electrons and neither has a tendency to
donate them, they share electrons in order to achieve octet configuration and
become more stable.
• A nonpolar covalent bond is formed between same atoms or atoms with very
similar electronegativities—the difference in electronegativity between bonded atoms
is less than 0.5.
• A polar covalent bond is formed when atoms of slightly different electronegativities
share electrons.
2. Covalent Bonds
Two types of bonds formed

Sigma bonds
Three possible ways for a sigma bond to be formed
a. Overlapping of two S-orbital
b. Overlapping of an S and a P-orbital
c. Head to head overlapping of two P-orbital

Pi bonds
• The side to side overlapping of two P orbital
• These bonds make a compound reactive example in alkenes with the c-c double bond.

Properties of Covalent Compounds

• Liquids and gases at room temperature
• Relatively low boiling point.
• Do not conduct electricity
• Insoluble in polar solvent
• Soluble in non-polar solvent

Metallic bonding
• This type of covalent bonding specifically occurs between atoms of metals, in which the
valence electrons are free to move through the lattice.
• This bond is formed via the attraction of the mobile electrons—referred to as sea of
electrons—and the fixed positively charged metal ions.
• Metallic bonds are present in samples of pure elemental metals, such as gold or aluminum,
or alloys, like brass or bronze.

Influences the strength of the Metallic bond

 Availability of electrons
 More available delocalized electrons, the stronger the electrostatic attraction, the
stronger the metallic bond.
 Size of the charge on metal ion
 Larger charge size, stronger the metallic bond.

Types of intermolecular forces

1.Dipole-dipole interactions:
• forces occur when the partially positively charged part of a molecule interacts with the
partially negatively charged part of the neighboring molecule. The
• prerequisite for this type of attraction to exist is partially charged ions—for example, the
case of polar covalent bonds such as hydrogen chloride, HCl\text{HCl}HClstart text, H, C, l,
end text.
 • Dipole-dipole interactions are the strongest intermolecular force of attraction.
2. Hydrogen bonding
• special kind of dipole-dipole interaction that occurs specifically between a hydrogen atom
bonded to either an oxygen, nitrogen, or fluorine atom. The
• partially positive end of hydrogen is attracted to the partially negative end of the oxygen,
nitrogen, or fluorine of another molecule. Hydrogen bonding is a
• relatively strong force of attraction between molecules, and considerable energy is required
to break hydrogen bonds
• Hydrogen bonding plays an important role in biology;
• hydrogen bonds are responsible for holding nucleotide bases together in
DNA\text{DNA}DNA start text, D, N, A, end text and RNA\text{RNA}RNA start text,
R, N, A, end text.
3.London dispersion forces, under the category of van der Waal forces:
• the weakest of the intermolecular forces and exist between all types of molecules, whether
ionic or covalent—polar or nonpolar. The more electrons a molecule has, the stronger the
London dispersion forces are. For example, bromine, Br2.