ELEMENTS AND THEIR CORRESPONDING COLOR

Types of intramolecular forces of attraction

1. Ionic bond: This bond is formed by the complete transfer of valence electron(s) between atoms. It is a type of
chemical bond that generates two oppositely charged ions. In ionic bonds, the metal loses electrons to become
a positively charged cation, whereas the nonmetal accepts those electrons to become a negatively charged
anion.

Figure of ionic bond forming between

Na and Cl

2. Covalent bond: This bond is formed between atoms that have similar electronegativities—the affinity or desire
for electrons. Because both atoms have similar affinity for electrons and neither has a tendency to donate them,
they share electrons in order to achieve octet configuration and become more stable.

A nonpolar covalent bond is formed between same atoms or atoms with very similar electronegativities—the
difference in electronegativity between bonded atoms is less than 0.5.

Figure of covalent bond forming between two Cl molecules

 A polar covalent bond is formed
when atoms of slightly different
electronegativities share electrons.
The difference in electronegativity
between bonded atoms is between
0.5 and 1.9. Hydrogen chloride, HCl;
the O-H bonds in water, H20 ; and
hydrogen fluoride, HF, are all
examples of polar covalent bonds.

Figure of polar covalent bond forming between H and Cl

3. Metallic bonding: This type of covalent bonding specifically occurs between atoms of metals, in which
the valence electrons are free to move through the lattice. This bond is formed via the attraction of the mobile
electrons—referred to as sea of electrons—and the fixed positively charged metal ions. Metallic bonds are present in
samples of pure elemental metals, such as gold
or aluminum, or alloys, like brass or bronze.

Figure of metal with positively charged atoms

and mobile valence electrons

The freely moving electrons in metals are

responsible for their a reflecting property—
freely moving electrons oscillate and give off
photons of light—and their ability to effectively conduct heat and electricity.

Relative strength of the intramolecular forces

Intramolecular Relative
force Basis of formation strength

Metal cations to delocalized

Metallic bond electrons 1, strongest

Ionic bond Cations to anions 2

Polar covalent Partially charged cation to

bond partially charged anion 3

Nonpolar covalent
bond Nuclei to shared electrons 4, weakest
Intermolecular forces of attraction
Now let’s talk about the intermolecular forces that exist between molecules. Intermolecular forces are much
weakerthan the intramolecular forces of attraction but are important because they determine the physical properties of
molecules like their boiling point, melting point, density, and enthalpies of fusion and vaporization.

Types of intermolecular forces that exist between molecules

1. Dipole-dipole interactions: These forces occur

when the partially positively charged part of a molecule
interacts with the partially negatively charged part of the
neighboring molecule. The prerequisite for this type of
attraction to exist is partially charged ions—for example,
the case of polar covalent bonds such as hydrogen
chloride, HCl. Dipole-dipole interactions are the
strongest intermolecular force of attraction.

Figure of H-Cl to H-Cl dipole-dipole attraction

2. Hydrogen bonding: This is a special kind of dipole-dipole

interaction that occurs specifically between a hydrogen atom bonded to
either an oxygen, nitrogen, or fluorine atom. The partially positive end
of hydrogen is attracted to the partially negative end of the oxygen,
nitrogen, or fluorine of another molecule. Hydrogen bonding is a
relatively strong force of attraction between molecules, and
considerable energy is required to break hydrogen bonds. This explains
the exceptionally high boiling points and melting points of compounds
like water, H20, and hydrogen fluoride, HF.

3. London dispersion forces, under the category of van der Waal forces:These are the weakest of the
intermolecular forces and exist between all types of
molecules, whether ionic or covalent—polar or nonpolar.
The more electrons a molecule has, the stronger the London
dispersion forces are. For example, bromine, Br2, has more
electrons than chlorine, Cl2, so bromine will have stronger
London dispersion forces than chlorine, resulting in a higher
boiling point for bromine, 59 C, compared to chlorine, –35 C.
Also, the breaking of London dispersion forces doesn’t
require that much energy, which explains why nonpolar
covalent compounds like methane—CH4—oxygen, and nitrogen—which only have London dispersion forces of attraction
between the molecules—freeze at very low temperatures.
 Relative strength of intermolecular forces of attraction

Intermolecular
force Occurs between … Relative strength

Dipole-dipole Partially oppositely

attraction charged ions Strong

Strongest of the
H atom and O, N/ dipole-dipole
Hydrogen bonding or F attractions

London dispersion Temporary or

attraction induced dipoles Weakest

How forces of attraction affect properties of compounds

Polar covalent compounds—like hydrogen chloride, HCl, and hydrogen iodide, HI—have dipole-dipole interactions
between partially charged ions and London dispersion forces between molecules. Nonpolar covalent compounds—like
methane CH4, and nitrogen gas, N2)—only have London dispersion forces between molecules. The rule of thumb is that
the stronger the intermolecular forces of attraction, the more energy is required to break those forces. This translates
into ionic and polar covalent compounds having higher boiling and melting points, higher enthalpy of fusion, and higher
enthalpy of vaporization than covalent compounds.

Boiling and melting points of compounds depend on the type and strength of the intermolecular forces present, as
tabulated below:

Relative order
Type of of boiling and
compound Intermolecular forces present melting points

Ion to ion attraction between

Ionic compounds ions, London dispersion forces 1, highest)

Covalent
compounds
containing Hydrogen bonds, London
hydrogen bonds dispersion forces 2
 Relative order
Type of of boiling and
compound Intermolecular forces present melting points

Dipole-dipole attraction
between dipoles created by
Polar covalent partially charged ions, London
compounds dispersion forces 3

Nonpolar covalent
compounds London dispersion forces 4, lowest

Summary of IMFAs