POLARITY OF MOLECULES FACTORS IN DETERMINING THE POLARITY

OF MOLECULES
Chemical Bond
 The polarity of the bonds between atoms that
 Forces of attraction that hold two or more can be studied using the electronegativity.
atoms together
 The geometrical shape of the molecules
 Bonding between two atoms occurs because
electrons are shared or transferred atoms
POLARITY OF BOND

IONIC vs COVALENT BONDS

Ionic Bond

 The transfer of valence electrons between atoms

 The metal element loses its electron to become
positively charged cation, whereas the
nonmetal accepts electrons become a negatively
charged anions
 When one atom is metal and the other is non-
metal automatic Ionic bond ELECTRONEGATIVITY DIFFERENCES

Covalent Bond

 Sharing of electrons between atoms

 This type of bonding occurs between two atoms
of the same element or of elements close to each
other in the periodic table of elements.

ELECTRONEGATIVITY
MOLECULAR GEOMETRY
 This is defined as the ability of an atom to pull
CO2-linear
electrons in a chemical bond.
 It increases from left to right and decreases
downward

SO2- bent

NH3- trigonal pyramidal

-

POLARITY

 In chemical bonding, the distribution of

electrical charge over the atoms joined by the
bond.
 It refers to the way on how atoms bond with
one another.

BCl4- trigonal planar

 5 Types of Intermolecular Force

1. Ion Dipole
2. Dipole-Dipole
3. H-Bond
4. London Dispersion
5. Van Der Waal’s

Chlorine trifluoride (CF3)- T-shaped

1. Ion- Dipole Forces (Ion and a Polar Molecule)
 Results when an ion and the partial charge
found at the end of a polar molecule attract
each other.

2. Dipole-Dipole
 Polar molecules attract each other when the
positive end of one molecule is near to the
TYPES OF MOLECULES negative end of another.
 Weaker than Ion-Dipole Force
POLAR MOLECULES  The more polar the substance, the stronger
its dipole-dipole interaction
 EN greater than 0.5
 Molecular shape: bent, trigonal pyramidal,
3. Hydrogen Bonding
T-shaped
 Attractive interaction between hydrogen
atom bonded to an electronegative element
NONPOLAR MOLECULES (F, O, N)
 Play an important role in life process
 EN less than 0.5
 Water, DNA and Protein
 Molecular shape: linear, tetrahedral and
planar
4. London Dispersion
 Exist between all atoms and molecules
 Only attractive forces between non-polar
ATTRACTIVE FORCES
molecules and noble gas atoms (CL2 and
 Forces of attraction that hold two or more CH4)
atoms together  The weakest intermolecular force
 Are forces that occurs between molecules  The London dispersion force is a temporary
attractive force that results when the
electrons in two adjacent atoms occupy
Intermolecular Forces of Attraction positions that make the atoms form
temporary dipoles.
 An attractive force that acts between a  Explained in 1930 by Fritz London a
molecule and another molecule German scientist

Intramolecular Forces of Attraction 3 types of London Dispersion

 (Bonding Forces)- an attractive force that 1. Ion- induced Dipole
acts within the molecule  The force of attraction between a charged
 Inside ion and a non-polar molecule

2. Dipole-Induced Dipoles
Intermolecular Force  The force of attraction between a polar
molecule and non-polar molecule
 An attractive force that acts between a
 The polar molecule induces a temporary
molecule and another molecule
dipole in the non-polar molecule.
 Intermolecular forces are weak compared to
intramolecular forces
3. Induced Dipole-Induced Dipole Attraction
 Between
 Force of attraction between two nonpolar
molecules

Type of IMFA Present In Relative

Strength
1. London All molecules Weak
Dispersion
 2. Dipole- Polar Moderate  Adhesion is an attraction between unlike
Dipole Force Molecules Strong molecules (such as those in water and in the
3. Hydrogen Molecules Strong particles that make up the glass tube).
Bonding with H-F, H-
O, H-N Bonds
Ionic Connection to IMF
4. Ion-Dipole compounds Strongest
dissolve in  When the cohesive forces between the
polar solvent liquid molecules are greater than the
adhesive forces between the liquid and the
walls of the container, the surface of the
liquid is convex.
 Example: mercury in a container

PROPERTIES OF LIQUID  When the cohesive forces between the

liquid molecules are lesser than the
1. Surface Tension
adhesive forces between the liquid and the
 Is the measure of the elastic force in the
walls of the container, the surface of the
surface liquid. It is the amount of energy
liquid is concave.
required to stretch or increase the surface of
 Example: water in a glass container
a liquid by a unit area.
 Directly Proportional
 It is manifested as some sort of skin on the
surface of a liquid or in a drop of liquid.

 Molecules within a liquid are pulled in all 3. Viscosity

directions by intermolecular forces.
Molecules at the surface are pulled
downward and sideways by other
molecules, not upward away from the
surface
Connection to IMF
 Liquids that have strong intermolecular
forces also have high surface tension.
 Use water as an example of a liquid with
high surface tension as a result of H-bonds,
which are strong intermolecular forces.
 Directly Proportional
 Viscosity is expressed in units of centipoise.
The table below gives viscosities of liquids
of some pure substances. Water has
viscosity of 1 centipoise or 0.001 Pa/s at
20C.
 (Poise or Stoke is a metric system unit. The
SI unit is
 Pascal-second (Pa-s) or
 Newton-second/meter2 (N-s/m2).
 1 centipoise = 0.001 Pa-s).
 Substances with lower viscosities include
carbon tetrachloride and benzene. Glycerol
has a resistance to flow of more than a
thousand times greater than water.

2. Capillary Action
 is the tendency of a liquid to rise in narrow
tubes or be drawn into small openings such
as those between grains of a rock.
 Capillary action, also known as capillarity,
is a result of intermolecular attraction
between the liquid and solid materials.
CONNECTION TO IMF
 Liquids that have strong intermolecular
forces have higher viscosities than those
that have weak intermolecular forces.
 The size of the molecules. The larger the
molecule, even if it is nonpolar, the stronger
the intermolecular forces and the greater the
viscosity compared to nonpolar substances
made up of small molecules.
 Directly Proportional

Two Types of Capillary Action

4. Vapor Pressure
 Cohesion is the intermolecular attraction
between like molecules (the liquid  Gas molecules move in random directions,
molecules). collide with other gas particles and the
walls of the container. Some will strike the
 liquid surface and condense back into it. In
the closed flask, none of the gas particles are
able to get out of the container, and
eventually, the number of molecules that go
into the gaseous state would equal the
number of molecules that condense back.
 liquid ⇋ vapor (gas)
 The equilibrium vapor pressure is the
maximum vapor pressure of a liquid at a
given temperature and that it is constant at
a constant temperature. It increases with
temperature.
 The pressure exerted by the gas in
equilibrium with a liquid in a closed
container at a given temperature is called
the equilibrium vapor pressure or simply
vapor pressure of the liquid.
 This is one of the relationships between
variables that describe a gas: the pressure of
a gas is directly proportional to the number
of gas particles present.
 The greater the number of gaseous particles,
the greater the pressure exerted by the gas.
CONNECTION TO IMF
 As the temperature increases, the vapor
pressure of water also increases.
 When temperature is high, more molecules
have enough energy to escape from the
liquid. At a lower temperature, fewer
molecules have sufficient energy to escape
from the liquid.
 The stronger the intermolecular forces of
attraction, the lower the vapor pressure of a
liquid.
 Inversely Proportional
5. MOLAR HEAT OF VAPORIZATION
 The molar heat of vaporization (ΔHvap) is
the energy required to vaporize 1 mole of a
liquid at a given temperature. H is the
symbol for enthalpy, which means heat
content at a given standard condition.
CONNECTION TO IMF
 The heat of vaporization may be considered
a measure of the strength of intermolecular
forces in a liquid. If the intermolecular
attraction is strong, it takes a lot of energy
to free the molecules from the liquid phase
and the heat of vaporization will be high.
 It is easier to vaporize acetone (lower Hvap)
than water (higher Hvap) at a given
temperature, and more acetone escapes into
the vapor phase at a given temperature.
Acetone is a polar substance but has no H-
bonding. It has weaker intermolecular
forces than water, and therefore acetone
molecules are held less tightly to one
another in the liquid phase.
 Directly Proportional
6. BOILING POINT
 The boiling point of a liquid is the
temperature at which the liquid converts
into a gas. A more complete definition
includes the vapor pressure.
 A liquid boils when its vapor pressure
equals the pressure acting on the surface of
the liquid. The boiling point is the
temperature at which the vapor pressure of
a liquid is equal to the external pressure.
 The normal boiling point is the temperature
at which the liquid converts to a gas when
the external pressure is 1 atm. The normal
boiling point of water is 100oC.
 The boiling point of a liquid depends on the
external pressure. For example, at 1 atm,
water boils at 100OC, but if the pressure is
reduced to 0.5 atm, water boils at only 82
OC.
 Directly Proportional to the IMF
Relate Boiling Point To Molar Heat Of
Vaporization.
 The boiling point is related to molar heat of
vaporization: the higher ΔHvap , the higher
the b oiling point, as shown in the table.
PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS
Crystalline
 Crystalline solids are arranged in fixed
geometric patterns or lattices.
 Examples: ice and sodium chloride (NaCl),
copper sulfate (CuSO4), diamond, graphite,
and sugar (C12H22O11).
Behavior when heated
 The structures of crystalline solids are built
from repeating units called crystal lattices.
The surroundings of particles in the
 structure are uniform, and the attractive - Nonmetal and Metal
forces experienced by the particles are of
similar types and strength. These attractive
forces are broken by the same amount of Molecular Crystals
energy, and thus, crystals become liquids at
a specific temperature (i.e. the melting
point). At this temperature, physical
properties of the crystalline solids change
sharply.

Amorphous Solid

 Amorphous solids have a random

orientation of particles. - Inter Molecular
 Examples: glass, plastic, coal, and rubber. - Two non-metals
 Includes gas, plastic, wax and silly putty

Behavior when heated

Covalent Network Crystals
 Amorphous solids soften gradually when
they are heated. They tend to melt over a
wide range of temperature. This behavior is
a result of the variation in the arrangement
of particles in their structures, causing some
parts of the solid to melt ahead of other
parts.

Types of Solid

Metallic Crystals

- Intra Molecular

SUMMARY

- Intramolecular
- Metals
PHASE CHANGES
Phase of Mater

 Depends on strength of forces of attraction

Solids

 Definite shape and volume

Ionic Crystals

- Intra Molecular
  Most dense phase (except water)
 Difficult to compress
Energy
 Particles vibrate in fixed positions
 Crystalline lattice structure  Capacity to do work or produce heat. It can
 Most attraction between particles be anything that causes matter to move or
change direction
o Different types of energy
Liquid Ex: Electrical, Thermal, Atomic, Mechanical
 Definite volume
o Chemical Energy is the potential
 No definite shape
energy stored in the bonds between
 Hard to compress
atoms
 Particles slide past to each other
 Forces of attraction is still high

Law of Conservation Energy

Gases
 Energy can’t be created or destroyed, just
 No definite shape or volume transferred from one form to another
 Expands to fill container
 Lowest density
 Little attraction between particles Potential Energy

 Stored Energy
 Energy can be stored in bonds between
Causes of phase change of matter
atoms
 Phase changes are transformations of matter
from one physical state to another. They
occur when energy (usually in the form of Kinetic Energy
heat) is added or removed from a substance.
 Energy of motion
They are characterized by changes in
molecular order; molecules in the solid  All atoms are moving and vibrating unless
phase have the greatest order, while those at absolute zero
in the gas phase have the greatest
randomness or disorder,
ENERGY AND CHANGES TO MATTER

Changes in Phase
Exothermic Change: A+B  C+D+ energy

 Energy is released or “ex”its

 Condensation, Deposition and Freezing

Endothermic Change: A+B+energy  C+D

 Energy is absorbed or “en”ters

 Melting, Vaporization and Sublimation

ENERGY DURING PHASE CHANGES

Sublimation Solid  Liquid or Liquid  Gas

 Directly from the solid phase to the gas

phase.
 Happens with substances with weak
intermolecular forces of attraction
 They separate easily

Example: Dry Ice, Iodine

Endothermic  Heat Energy travels from an object of
another temp to one of lower temp until
 Energy is absorbed and overcomes
both reach the same temp
attractive forces between particles and no
increase in temp.
 Kinetic Energy increases s temperature Temperature
increases
 Measure of the average kinetic energy
(motion) of all the particles in a sample
Gas  Liquid, Liquid  Solid  Not a form of energy
o But if you add heat energy or take it
away, it causes particles to move
faster or slower and thus changes the
temp

Heating & Cooling Curves


Exothermic 

 As particles come closer together energy is 
released 
 Forces of attraction is formed and no 
increase in temperature 
G
raphically represents temp. changes as heat
In both the heating and cooling curves, there are energy is added or taken away
certain portions where the temperature changes as heat
is being added or removed, and portions where the
temperature remains constant even if heat is being
added or removed. What is happening at these Interpretation of the Graph of Heating and
portions? Cooling Curve

1. When heat change is accompanied by a change in

temperature, a change in kinetic energies of the particles
in the substance is occurring. The particles are either
Slanted Portions
moving faster or slowing down.  Temp is changing
2. When temperature remains constant during heat  Single phase is heating up or cooling down
change, the particles move at the same speed. The heat  Kinetic Energy is changing
added or removed is involved in breaking or forming
attractive forces. A phase change occurs at this
temperature: solid melts or liquid freezes at the melting
Flat Portions
point, which is also the freezing point, liquid boils, or
gas condenses at the boiling point, which is also the  Temp not changing
condensation point
 Substance undergoing a phase change
 Potential Energy is changing

Heat Energy

 Also called Thermal Energy, it makes

particles move more as it is needed
 Measured in KiloJoules or calories

MELTING AND FREEZING:

SOLID-LIQUID EQUILIBRIM

 At this temperature, the average kinetic

Heat Flows or Transfer energy of the molecules has become
sufficiently large to begin overcoming the
 intermolecular forces that hold the
molecules of a solid state together
 The heat absorbed is used to break apart
more and more of the molecules in the
solid.
 Solid and liquid phases coexist in
equilibrium.
 The stronger the attractive forces that hold
the particles in the solid, the higher is the
melting point of the substance.
BOILING AND CONDENSING:
LIQUID-VAPOR EQUILIMBRIUM
SOLID-VAPOR EQUILIBRIUM
MOLAR HEAT OF SUBLIMATION
 When a liquid is heated, its temperature
increases as the kinetic energy of the
molecules increases. When the molecules
have sufficient energy to escape from the
surface, a phase change occurs.
 Evaporation or vaporization is the process
in which a liquid is transformed into a gas.
The temperature at which this occurs is the
boiling point of the substance. While the
liquid vaporizes, the temperature remains
constant.
 The boiling point of a liquid at 1 atm
pressure is called its normal boiling point.
For water, this is at 100oC.
 The reverse of vaporization or boiling is
called condensation, the change from the
gas phase to the liquid phase. Condensation
occurs because a molecule strikes the liquid
surface and becomes trapped by
intermolecular forces in the liquid.
 In a solid, the particles may be in fixed
positions, but they are able to vibrate in
place and with increasing intensity as
temperature increases.
 When particles are able to acquire enough
energy to break attractive forces with
adjacent particles, the energetic particles
may move into the gaseous state.
 This phase change is called sublimation.
 Molar heat of sublimation (ΔHsub) of a
substance is the amount of energy that must
be added to a mole of solid at constant
pressure to turn it directly into a gas,
without passing through the liquid phase.
 This enthalpy change associated with
sublimation is always greater than that of
vaporization
PHASE DIAGRAM
 Phase diagrams are plots of (usually in
atmospheres) versus temperature (usually
in degrees Celsius of Kelvin). The diagram
is divided into three areas: solid, liquid and
gaseous states.
 The boundary between the liquid and
gaseous regions stop at point C, the critical
temperature for the substance.
Difference Between Phase Change Diagram and boiling point of the liquid. Anywhere along
Phase Diagram this line, there will be equilibrium between
the liquid. and the vapor,

Sublimation (or Deposition) Curve

Three Areas of Phase Diagram

1. Solid
2. Liquid
3. Gas
 Under a set of conditions in the diagram, or
a substance can exist in a solid, liquid, or a
vapor (gas) phase.

THREE LINE CURVES

Melting (or Freezing) Curve

Sublimation (or deposition) curve - the curve on a
phase diagram which represents the transition
between gaseous and solid states. It represents the
effect of increased temperature on a solid at a very
low constant pressure, lower than the triple point.

TWO IMPORTANT POINTS

 Melting (or freezing) curve-the curve on a

phase diagram which represents the TRIPLE POINT
transition between liquid and solid states. It
shows the effect of pressure on the melting
point of the solid. Anywhere on this line,
there is equilibrium between the solid and
the liquid.

Vaporization (or Condensation) Curve

The triple point is the combination of pressure and

temperature which all three phases of matter are at
equilibrium. It is point on a phase diagram at
which the three states of matter coexist.

CRITICAL POINT


Vaporization (or Condensation) curve- the
curve on a phase diagram which represents
the transition between gaseous and liquid
states. It shows the effect of pressure on the
The critical point terminates the liquid/gas phase
line. It is the set of temperature and pressure on a
phase diagram where the liquid and gaseous
phases of a substance single phase. Beyond merge
together into the temperature of the critical point,
the merged single phase is known as a supercritical
fluid.

SUPERCRITICAL FLUID