PHYSICAL SCIENCE

Pure compound, molecules

LESSON 3:
THE PARTICULATE NATURE OF ATOM

ATOM Mixture of elements and compounds,

 basic building block of all matter atoms and molecules
ELEMENT
 only one type of atom

COPPER Mixture of elements. Atoms only

 outside of pennies
CHARGED PARTICLES
 Cu (formula)
NEUTRAL ATOMS
MOLECULES
 atoms have no charge at all
 two or more atoms join together
IONS
WATER MOLECULE
 Individual atoms with a charge (positive
 one oxygen and two hydrogen atoms
or negative)
 H2O
 a + or – next to the chemical symbol or
drawn atom.
COMPOUND
 Since water has two different types
ELECTROSTATIC ATTRACTION
 two oppositely-charged ions come into
PURE SUBSTANCES
close contact
 Copper and water
 since they are only made of one type of
ELECTROSTATIC REPULSION
particle (atom or molecule)
 two similarly-charged ions come into
close contact
BALLOON
 Nitrogen (N2), which is an element and a
POLAR MOLECULES
molecule.
 Entire molecules can also carry a charge,
 Oxygen (O2), which is an element and a
resulting in a positive and negative pole
molecule.
 delta (δ) and a positive (+) or negative (-)
 Carbon dioxide (CO2), which is a
compound and a molecule.
NONPOLAR MOLECULES
 Molecules that do not carry a charge
MIXTURE
 different types of molecules present that
are not chemically bonded together

CLASSIFICATION

Pure element, atoms

 INTERNOLECULAR FORCES OF
ATTRACTION

VAN DER WAALS FORCES

 These are intermolecular forces of
attraction between neutral molecules.
 The Nobel Prize in Physics 1910
(Johannes van der Waals)
 "For his work on the equation of state for
gases and liquids"

INTER VS. INTRAMOLECULAR FORCES

INTRAMOLECULAR FORCES
 forces within a molecule or ionic
compound
EXAMPLE:
o Individual therapy
o NaCl Ionic bond between atom of
Na and atom of Cl

INTERMOLECULAR FORCES
 forces between molecules or ions and
molecules
EXAMPLE:
o couples therapy
o Solid liquid gas

STRENGTH

 Intramolecular bonds > intermolecular

forces

 Intramolecular bonds are stronger

because it would take a lot more energy to
overcome covalent bonds and break apart
the molecule than to overcome
intermolecular forces in between the
atoms (to make it become a liquid or gas).

PHASE CHANGES

 When a substance changes from solid to

liquid to gas, the molecules remain intact.

 The changes in state are due to changes in

the forces among molecules rather than in
those within the molecules.
 For information
3 TYPES OF VAN DER WAALS FORCES
1. Dipole-Dipole forces
2. London Dispersion forces
3. Hydrogen bonding

COMPARING THE MAGNITUDE OF

INTERMOLECULAR FORCES
 Hydrogen bonding > dipole-dipole > LDF
o Size of the molecule is comparable
o Similar atoms
o Similar molas mass

 Molecules vary in size; it is more difficult

to compare the strengths of
intermolecular forces as LDF could
become more significant than dipole-
dipole and even hydrogen bonding
DIPOLE-DIPOLE FORCES
 forces of attraction that occur between
polar molecules
 (Big difference in electron negativity)
 Molecules with larger dipole moments
have higher melting and boiling points
(hard to break)
 Dipole attractions are relatively weak and
tend to be liquids or gas at room
temperature

 effective only when polar molecules are HYDROGEN BONDING

very close
 As distance increase strength of bond
decreases
 For molecules of approximately equal
mass and size, the strength of force of
attraction increases as the polarity
increases
 Radius have an effect on strength of
dipole
 A special type of dipole-dipole interaction
between the hydrogen atom in a polar
bond and an unshared electron pair of an
element that is very electronegative
usually a F, O, or N atom on another
molecule
 (Note that all of these have very high EN’s
and small atomic radii)

FRITZ LONDON
HYDROGEN BONDING
 super-humanly strong
 (Unusually strong dipole dipole 4X
stronger that dipole dipole)
LONDON DISPERSION FORCES
HYDROGEN BONDING IS EFFECTIVE
 F, O, & N are extremely small and very
electronegative atoms
 atoms have a large difference in
electronegativity and their nuclei can get
really close
IMPORTANCE OF HYDROGEN BONDING
 biologically, in stabilizing proteins and
keeping DNA together
LONDON DISPERSION FORCES
 forces that arise as a result of temporary
dipoles induced in the atoms or molecules
 (it’s a temporary accident!)
 All molecules have some degree of LD
forces
 LD forces occur between neutral non-
polar molecules.
 (Noble’s gases and nonpolar compounds)
 Occurs in all molecules, including
nonpolar ones.
 LD forces are weak
 The greater the number of electrons the
greater the LD force.
 (i.e., the greater the melting and boiling
pt.).
 The larger the electron cloud the more
polarizable an the greater the strength of
the interaction
 LD force molecules have Low melting and
boiling pts
 These forces tend to increase in strength
with an increase in molecular weight
 These forces are stronger in linear
molecules than comparable “bunched up”
molecules.
 LD forces are generally the WEAKEST
intermolecular forces.
  Molecules with more electrons will  Liquids are vital to our lives.
experience more LD forces o Water is a means of food
preparation
INSTANTANEOUS AND INDUCED DIPOLES o Cooling machines in industrial
processes
o Recreation
o Cleaning
o Transportation

CHARACTERISTICS OF LIQUIDS
 Surface tension
 Capillary action
 Viscosity

COHESIVE FORCES
ION-DIPOLE FORCES  Intermolecular forces that bind like
 Attraction between an ion and the partial molecules to one another (e.g. hydrogen
charge on the end of a polar molecule. bonding)
 The magnitude of attraction increases as
either the charge of the ion increases or
magnitude of the dipole moment
increases.
 Ion-dipole forces are important in
solutions of ionic substances in polar
liquids (e.g. water)
 Stronger than Hydrogen bonding

ADHESIVE FORCES
 Intermolecular forces that bind a
substance to a surface.
 Convex meniscus formed by polar water

COHESIVE FORCES
 Convex meniscus formed by nonpolar
ON-DIPOLE FORCES AND THE SOLUTION water
PROCESS
SURFACE TENSION
 measure of the inward forces that must be
overcome in order to expand the surface
area of a liquid and resist and external
force.
 The greater the forces of attraction
between molecules (IMF) of the liquid,
the greater the surface tension.
 Surface tension of a liquid decreases with
increasing temperature.
 The stronger the intermolecular forces
the stronger the surface tension.
CAPILLARY ACTION
PROPERTIES OF LIQUIDS
  Another way surface tension manifests
 The rise of liquids up very narrow tubes
 This is limited by adhesive and cohesive
forces

FORMATION OF MENISCUS
WATER
CRYSTALLINE SOLID
 adhesive forces are greater than
 Ridged and long-range order of its atoms.
cohesive forces
 Solids have flat surfaces
 Sharp melting points
MERCURY
EXAMPLE:
 Cohesive are greater than adhesive
o Quartz, diamond, sodium Chloride.
forces.

VISCOSITY
AMORPHOUS SOLID
 The resistance of a liquid to flow.
 Lack a well-defined arrangement
 The less “tangled” a molecule is expected
to be, the less viscous it is.  No long range orders
 Viscosity decreases with increasing  IMF varies in strength
temperature (molecules gain kinetic  DO NOT have sharp melting points.
energy and can more easily overcome EXAMPLE:
forces of attraction). o rubber, glass
 Viscosity Increases as pressure increases.
 Liquids with strong IMF have a higher UNIT CELL
viscosity.  The smallest part of a crystal that will
reproduce the crystal when repeated in
three dimensions.

3 TYPES
1. Simple /primitive cubic cell
2. Face centered cubic cell
3. Body Centered

FOUR TYPES OF SOLIDS

ATOMIC SOLIDS
COMPO Ioni
NENTS Group Molecul c
Metallic Network
THAT 8A ar Solids Soli
OCCUPY ds
THE Group Discrete
Metal Nonmeta
LATTICE 8A molecul Ions
atoms l atoms
POINTS atoms es
BONDIN Delocali Directio London Dipole- ionic
G zed nal dispersi dipole
covalent covalent on and/ or
(leading forces London
STRUCTURE OF SOLIDS to giant dispersi
molecule on
 s forces
LESSON 4:
CHEMICAL REACTION
CHEMICAL REACTION
 chemical change in which one or more
substances are destroyed and one or
more new substances are created
PARTS OF A CHEMICAL REACTION
REACTANTS
 Substances that are destroyed by the
chemical change (bonds break)
PRODUCTS
 Substances created by the chemical
change (new bonds form)
SYMBOLS IN CHEMICAL REACTIONS
s solid
l liquid
g gas
aqueous solution (the substance is
aq
dissolved in H2O)
separates two or more reactants or
→ products
yield sign separates reactants from
+ average.
products
EVIDENCE FOR A CHEMICAL REACTION
1) Evolution of light or heat.
2) Temperature change (increase or
decrease) to the surroundings.
3) Formation of a gas (bubbling or an odor)
other than boiling.
4) Color change (due to the formation of a
new substance).
5) Formation of a precipitate (a new solid
forms) from the reaction of two aqueous
solutions.
REACTION RATE
 rate at which reactants change into
products over time.
 how fast a reaction is going.
FACTORS AFFECTING REACTION RATES
 Temperature
 Surface area
 Concentration
 Stirring
 Catalysts
 The reaction rate of a chemical reaction
depends on how often reactant particles
collide.
o If the collisions occur more
frequently, then the reaction rate
increases.
o If the collisions occur less
frequently, then the reaction rate
decreases.
o Reaction rates can be changed by
varying conditions.
TEMPERATURE
 increase in temperature will increase the
reaction rate, while a decrease in
temperature will decrease the reaction
rate.
 increasing the temperature of a substance
causes its particles to move faster, on
 Particles that move faster are both more
likely to collide and more likely to react.
SURFACE AREA
 smaller the particle size of a given mass,
the larger is its surface area.
 Increased surface area increases
collisions that involve reacting particles.
 With more collisions, more particles will
react.
STIRRING
 reactants increase their exposure to each
other.
CONCENTRATION
 number of particles in a given volume.
 The more reacting particles that are
present in a given volume, the more
opportunities there are for collisions
involving those particles.
  The reaction rate is faster.
CATALYSTS
 substance that affects the reaction rate
without being used up in the reaction.
 Chemists often use catalysts to speed up a
reaction or enable a reaction to occur at a
lower temperature.
 One of the steps involved in making
sulfuric acid is the reaction of sulfur
dioxide with oxygen to form sulfur
trioxide.
 This reaction happens very slowly
without a catalyst such as vanadium(V)
oxide.
 The catalyst is neither a reactant nor a
product, so it is written over the arrow.
 The catalyst lowers the amount of energy
required for effective collisions between
reacting particles.
STOICHEIOMETRY
 The study of quantities of materials
consumed and produced in chemical
reactions.
1. Balancing of the chemical equation
2. Conversion of the known masses of
substances to their corresponding
number of moles
3. Use mole ratio from the balanced
equations to determine the moles desired
substances
4. Conversion of moles of desired substance
to grams if needed
C2H5OH + 3O2 2CO2 + 3H2O
 The equation is balanced.
 All atoms present in the reactants are
accounted for in the products.
 1 mole of ethanol reacts with 3 moles of
oxygen to produce 2 moles of carbon
dioxide and 3 moles of water.
 The balanced equation represents an
overall ratio of reactants and products,
not what actually “happens” during a
reaction.
 Use the coefficients in the balanced
equation to decide the amount of each
reactant that is used, and the amount of
each product that is formed.
WRITING AND BALANCING THE EQUATION FOR
A CHEMICAL REACTION
1. Determine what reaction is occurring.
What are the reactants, the products, and
the physical states involved?
2. Write the unbalanced equation that
summarizes the reaction described in
step 1.
3. Balance the equation by inspection,
starting with the most complicated
molecule(s). The same number of each
type of atom needs to appear on both
reactant and product sides. Do NOT
change the formulas of any of the
reactants or products.
NOTICE
 The number of atoms of each type of
element must be the same on both sides
of a balanced equation.
 Subscripts must not be changed to
balance an equation.
 A balanced equation tells us the ratio of
the number of molecules which react and
are produced in a chemical reaction.
 Coefficients can be fractions, although
they are usually given as lowest integer
multiples.
STOICHEIMETRIC CALCULATIONS
 Chemical equations can be used to relate
the masses of reacting chemicals.
CALCULATING MASSES OF REACTANTS AND LIMITING REACTANT MIXTURE
PRODUCTS IN REACTIONS  Limiting reactant is the reactant that runs
out first.
1. Balance the equation for the reaction.

2. Convert the known mass of the reactant

or product to moles of that substance.

3. Use the balanced equation to set up the

appropriate mole ratios.

4. Use the appropriate mole ratios to

calculate the number of moles of the
desired reactant or product.
LIMITING REACTANTS
5. Convert from moles back to grams if  The number of products that can form is
required by the problem. limited by the methane.
 Methane is the limiting reactant.
 Water is in excess.

NOTICE
 We cannot simply add the total moles of
all the reactants to decide which reactant
mixture makes the most product.
 We must always think about how much
product can be formed by using what we
are given, and the ratio in the balanced
equation.

THE CONCEPT OF LIMITING REACTANT PERCENT YIELD

 An important indicator of the efficiency of
LIMITING REACTANT a particular laboratory or industrial
 runs out first and thus limits the amounts reaction.
of products that can be formed.
 Determine which reactant is limiting to
calculate correctly the amounts of
products that will be formed.

STOICHIOMETRIC MIXTURE
N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g)