LIQUIDS

VAPOUR PRESSURE
- In a closed container, gas particles is in equilibrium with
liquid.
- Gas particles collide and exert pressure on the wall of the
container and on the surface of the liquid.
- Liquid particles that have enough energy will vapourise to
form gas particles.
-
 SOLIDS

Solids are crystalline.

Particles arranged in regular and orderly arrangement
Represented by a lattice
Lattice particles : atoms , ions or molecules

Four types of solids :

Giant ionic lattice, giant molecular lattice, giant metallic lattice
and simple molecular
 Giant Ionic Lattice
⚫ Consists of oppositely charged ions packed closely
together.

Oppositely charged ions

held in a regular
3-dimensional lattice by
electrostatic attraction
Eg : solid NaCl
 Giant Ionic Lattice
Type of bond : ionic bond
Properties :
a. ions in fixed positions – good conductors when molten
or in aqueous solution
b. strong ionic bonds – high melting point
c. strong bonds and ions held together closely and rigidly
in fixed positions – hard and brittle
d. forms ion-dipole attraction with water molecules -
generally soluble in water
 Giant metallic Lattice
Lattice of positive ions surrounded by a sea of delocalised
( mobile or free ) electrons

Atoms arrange in regular close packed 3-
dimensional crystal lattices.
The outer shell electrons of each atom leave to
join a mobile “cloud” or “sea” of electrons which
can roam throughout the metal. The electron
cloud binds the newly-formed positive ions
together.
 Giant metallic Lattice

Type of bond : metallic bond

Properties :
a. strong metallic bonds – high melting point
b. mobile electrons – good conductors when solid or liquid
c. atoms held closely together by strong bonds in fixed
positions – hard
d. rigid non directional bonds , atoms can slide over each
other without breaking metallic bonds – malleable and
ductile
Giant molecular ( covalent ) lattice
Covalent bonds between atoms bind all atoms into a giant
molecule.
Example :
1) diamond , graphite , silica SiO2
2) silicon , germanium
Giant molecular ( covalent ) lattice
a. Diamond:
i) many strong covalent bonds :
very high melting point
ii) each carbon is joined to 4 others in a rigid structure :
hard and strong
iii) all valence electrons used in bonding, no free electrons :
non-conductor
Giant molecular ( covalent ) lattice

Each C bonded
Giant molecular structure to 4 other atoms
Coordination no = 4
Giant molecular ( covalent ) lattice
b. Graphite :
i) many strong covalent bonds :very high melting point
ii) each carbon atom is joined to 3 others in a layered
structure, layers are held by weak VDW forces and can
slide over each other :soft (used as lubricants )
iii) only 3 electrons used for bonding,presence of free
electrons :the fourth electron moves freely along the
layers therefore conductor
Giant molecular ( covalent ) lattice

Giant molecular structure

Layered structure

Each C bonded to 3 other atoms

Giant molecular ( covalent ) lattice
Graphite is soft
- layers of atoms held by weak VDW forces , can
slide over each other easily
- soft ( used as lubricant )
Diamond is hard
- strong C-C bonds between atoms arranged in a rigid
tetrahedral structure
Giant molecular ( covalent ) lattice
c. Silica, SiO2 (silicon IV oxide) :
i) many strong covalent bonds: very high melting points
ii) each silicon is joined to 4 oxygen atoms, and each
oxygen is joined to 2 silicon atoms: strong and hard
iii) all valence electrons used in bonding, no free electrons
: non conductor
 Simple Molecular

Atoms are joined together within the molecule by strong

covalent bonds but the non polar molecules are attracted
by weak VDW forces
⚫ Egs :

Solid I2 , solid CO2 ,

solid sulphur (S8)
 Simple Molecular

Properties :
a. weak VDW forces between molecules molecules easily
separated
- soft and low melting point
b. no free mobile electrons or ions
- non-conductor
 ALLOTROPE
⚫ Allotropes are two or more different forms of an
element in the same physical state, having different
atomic arrangements.
⚫ Graphite and diamond are not only allotropes
carbon. In recent years, substances called
fullerenes have been made.
⚫ Another form of carbon, graphene, can be regarded
as a single layer of graphite and carbon nanotube.
 FULLERENES
⚫ Fullerenes are allotropes of carbon in the form of hollow
spheres or tubes.
⚫ They similar in structure of graphite, in that each carbon is
bonded to three other carbon atoms.
⚫ They contain rings of carbon atoms arranged in hexagons
and in addition many contain rings of carbon atoms
arranged in pentagons. The first fullerene discovered is
called buckminsterfullerene, C₆₀.
⚫ The C₆₀ molecule has the shape of a football (soccer ball).
 FULLERENES

⚫ The carbon atoms are arranged at the corners of 20

hexagons and 12 pentagons.
⚫ As in graphite, some of the electrons in C₆₀ are
delocalized, but a lesser extent than in a graphite.
⚫ Since the discovery of the C₆₀ molecule, many types of
buckminsterfullerene have been discovered. Some are ball-
shaped molecules that are multiple of C₆₀ e.g. C₁₂₀.other
fullerene molecules include C₂₀, C₇₀ and C₇₂.
 Buckyballs
⚫ The properties of buckminsterfullerene are significantly different
from those of graphite and diamond.
⚫ It has a relatively low sublimation point: it turns directly from the
solid to the vapour state when heated to about 600°C .
⚫ This is because there are weak van der Waals’ forces between
each buckminsterfullerene molecule and it’s a simple
molecular structure.
⚫ It is relatively soft because it does of require much energy to
overcome the weak intermolecular forces.
 Buckyballs

⚫ It is poor conductor of electricity compared with the graphite

because the extent of electron delocalization is lower.
⚫ It is more reactive compared with the graphite or diamond.
Buckminsterfullerene reacts with the hydrogen , bromine and
oxygen. This is due to the relatively highly electron density in
certain parts of the molecule.
 Carbon Nanotubes

⚫ Nanotubes fullerenes of hexagonally arranged carbon

atoms like a single layer of graphite bent into the form of
cylinder.
⚫ The first nanotubes to be made were one layer of carbon
atoms in thickness. More recently nanotubes have been
made with a thicker walls with several tubes inside one
another. Although the diameter of a nanotube is very small,
it can be made relatively long. The length of the nanotube
cylinder can be a million times greater than its diameter.
 Carbon Nanotubes
⚫ 4 nm width (smaller
diameter than DNA)
⚫ 100x’s stronger than
steel 1/6 weight
⚫ Thermal/electrically
conductive
⚫ Metallic and Semi-
Conductive

23
 Carbon Nanotubes
Carbon nanotubes
⚫ The discovery of buckyballs led to the discovery of other
forms of carbon that are structurally related , e.g. carbon
nanotubes.
⚫ These are cylindrical in structure and also resemble a
rolled-up sheet of graphite, with the carbon molecules
arranged in repeating hexagons.
⚫ They have a diameter of a few nanometres and can be
open at both ends, sealed at one end or sealed at both
ends.
 Carbon Nanotubes
•Nanotubes have characteristic properties:
•They have high electrical conductivity along the long axis of
the cylinder. This is because, like graphite, some of the
electrons are delocalized and are able to move along the
cylinder when a voltage is applied.
•They have a very high tensile strength when a force is
applied along the long axis of the cylinder. They can be up to
100 times stronger than steel of the same thickness.
•They have very high melting points (typically about 3500°C).
This is because there is strong covalent bonding throughout
the structure.
 Graphene

⚫ Graphene is a single isolated layer of graphite.

⚫ The hexagonally arranged sheet of carbon atoms is not completely rigid
and it can be distorted.
⚫ Graphene has some of the properties of graphite, but they are more
exaggerated.
⚫ Graphene is the most chemically reactive form of carbon. Single sheets
of graphene burnt at very low temperatures and are much more reactive
than graphite.
⚫ Graphene is extremely strong for its mass
⚫ For a give made of graphene amount of material, graphene conducts
electricity and heat much better than graphite.