Topic 4:

States of Matter

4.1 Bonding and structure

Objective
• describe, in simple terms, the lattice structure of a crystalline solid which is:
- ionic, as in sodium chloride, magnesium oxide

Ionic lattices

¶ Ionic lattices have a three-dimensional arrangement of alternating positive and negative ions.
Compounds with ionic lattices are sometimes called giant ionic structure.

Properties of ionic compounds

1) Hard
• It takes a lot of energy to scratch the surface because of the strong attractive forces keeping
the ions together.

2) Brittle
• Ionic crystals may split apart when hit in the same direction as the layers of ions.
• The layers of ions may be displaced by the force of the blow so that the ions with the same
charge come together.
• The repulsion between thousands of ions in the layers, all with the same charge, cause the
crystal to split along these cleavage planes.

3) High melting and boiling points

• Because the attraction between the large numbers of oppositely charged ions in the lattice
acts in all directions and bonds them strongly together.

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 4) Soluble in water

• When an ionic solid dissolves in water, bonds are formed between water molecules and the
ions.

5) Conduct electricity when molten or in solution.

• When molten or in solution, the ions are mobile.

Objective
• describe, in simple terms, the lattice structure of a crystalline solid which is:
- metallic, as in copper

¶ A metallic lattice consists of ions surrounded by a sea of electrons. The ions are often packed
in hexagonal layers or in a cubic arrangement.

¶ When a force is applied, the layers can slide over each other. But in a metallic bond, the
attractive forces between the metal ions and the delocalised electrons act in all directions.

Alloys and their properties

¶ An alloy is a mixture of two or more metals or a metal with a non-metal. The metal added to
create the alloy becomes part of the crystal lattice of the other metal. Example: Brass is an
alloy of copper (70%) with zinc (30%).

¶ The layers of ions in an alloy slide less easily than in a pure metal because the structure of the
lattice is less regular.

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Question 1
Explain the following:
a) why are most metals strong, but ionic solids are brittle?
b) why is an alloy of copper and tin stronger than either copper or tin alone?

Objective
• describe, in simple terms, the lattice structure of a crystalline solid which is:
- simple molecular, as in iodine and the fullerene allotropes of carbon (C60 and
nanotubes only)
- giant molecular, as in silicon(IV) oxide and the graphite, diamond and graphene
allotropes of carbon
- hydrogen-bonded, as in ice

Simple molecular lattices

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Question 2
The table shows some properties of four elements. Use the data to answer the following
questions. (Assume that steel has similar properties to iron.)

a) Why is aluminium with a steel core used for overhead electricity cables in preference to
copper?
b) Suggest why many car engine blocks are made from aluminium alloys rather than from steel.
c) Explain the differences in tensile strength and electrical conductivity of iron and sulphur.

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Silicon (IV) oxide

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Question 3
Explain the following properties of silicon (IV) oxide by referring to its structure and bonding.
a) It has a high melting point.
b) It does not conduct electricity.
c) It is a crystalline solid.
d) It is hard.

Question 4
Complete the table below to compare the properties of giant metallic and simple molecular
structures.

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Carbon nanoparticles
¶ Graphite and diamond are not the only allotropes of carbon. In recent years, substances
called fullerenes have been made.

¶ The structure of many fullerenes is based on rings of carbon atoms, as is the structure of
graphite. But many fullerenes exhibit properties unlike those of graphite.

¶ The individual particles in fullerenes may have one of their dimensions between 0.1 and 100
nanometers (1 nanometre = 10-9 m). Particles of this size are called nanoparticles.

¶ Another form of carbon, graphene, can be regarded as a single layer of graphite.

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Fullerenes

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Nanotubes Graphene

Question 5
Suggest, using ideas of structure and bonding, why?
a) buckminsterfullerene, C60, is converted from a solid to a gas at a relatively low temperature.
b) graphene is a good conductor of electricity.
c) nanotubes conduct electricity better along the long axis of the tube than across the tube.
d) buckminsterfullerene, C60, is relatively soft.

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