Structures of solids

Solids have properties that are extremely different from those of gases, e.g., solids are incompressible
and have definite shapes. These properties result from the arrangement of constituent particles
(molecules, atoms or ions). In solids, the particles are in regular patterns and are so close together that
they exert very powerful forces on one another.

Types of solids
1. Molecular solids.
2. Covalent (atomic) solids.
3. Ionic solids.
4. Metallic solids.

1. Molecular solids:
These consist of discrete (simple) molecules held together by weak forces, e.g., Iodine, paraffin wax and
gases such as noble gases, halogens, oxygen, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, etc. When they solidify,
molecular solids are volatile and have low melting points and heats of vaporization since their molecules
are held together by weak forces. They do not conduct electricity.

2. Covalent (atomic) solids:

These consist of atoms joined by single covalent bonds, e.g., diamond, silicon, silicon dioxide (silica), and
silicon carbide.
Structure of diamond
A

C
B D E

Fig. 1 Structure of diamond

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Diamond, an allotrope of carbon contains a three - dimensional array of carbon atoms with valence
bonds directed toward the apices of a regular tetrahedron. The whole structure is one giant molecule
and, because the bonding is strong and extended in three dimensions, diamond is exceptionally hard.
Melting point is 35000 C.

Structure of silicon dioxide

Silicon dioxide is also a three-dimensional giant molecule and one form of this compound (cristobalite)
has a structure in some ways similar to that of diamond. Each silicon atom is surrounded tetrahedrally
by four oxygen atoms, i.e., each oxygen atom is shared equally between two silicon atoms giving the
empirical formula, SiO2, and melting point 17000C. Atomic solids do not conduct electricity.

O O O

O Si O Si O Si Si
O O O

Si O Si O Si Si

O O O

Fig. 2 Structure of silicon dioxide

Trial 1
Explain the following observations:
(c) Carbon dioxide is a gas at room temperature whereas silicon (IV) oxide is a solid of high melting point.
(04marks)
(d) Diamond is a hard substance but graphite is soft and slippery.

Ionic solids
These consist of infinite arrays of positive and negative ions held together by electrostatic forces (giant
structures), e.g., sodium chloride. Ionic solids conduct electricity in molten and solution forms but not in
solid form.

The sodium chloride structure

The x-ray analysis of crystal structures show that sodium chloride consists of a regular three-dimensional
assembly of Na+ and Cl- ions.

= Na+
= Cl-

Fig.3 Structure of sodium chloride

Each sodium ion is surrounded by six Cl- ions as its neighbors and each Cl- is surrounded by six Na+ ions.
Therefore, both the sodium ion and chloride ions in the structure have a coordination number of six.
Sodium chloride is an ionic compound that conducts electricity in molten and solution forms.

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Trial 2
Fig.4 below shows the lattice structure of an ionic salt, MX.

=X
=M

Fig. 4
(a) State the coordination number of M+ and X- ions. Explain your answer. (3 marks)
(b) Name the type of lattice structure shown in the diagram above. (1 marks)

Metallic solids
These consist of infinite arrays of bonded atoms except that the atoms are not bonded together by
covalent but by metallic bonds.

electron

univalent metal ion

Fig. 5. Cross section of a metallic crystal.

Each encircled positive charge represents the nucleus and the field of non valence electron shell of
metal atoms. The dash (-) represents released mobile valence electrons into the electron pool. It is the
attractions between the positive ions and electron pool that keeps (bonds) the atoms together in a
metallic crystal.

Two-dimensional structures
The layer lattice structure of carbon (graphite)

C C
C C C C
C C C C
C C C C
C C
Layer of hexagonally
0.335 nm
bonded carbon atoms
C C
C C C C
C C C C
C C C C
C C
Fig.6 Structure of graphite
Graphite contains layers of carbon atoms; each carbon atom in a particular layer being covalently
bonded to three others, giving C-C-C bond angle of 1200. The individual layers are held together by van
der Waals’ forces.

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Physical properties arising from a layer lattice structure
1. Graphite is soft and greasy: This is because the layers can slip over each other easily since they are
held by weak forces.

2. The density of graphite is lower than that of diamond: This is because the graphite structure is much
more open than that of diamond.

3. Graphite is a conductor of electricity but diamond is not: This is because each carbon atom in the
graphite structure has one unused p-electron (π- electrons). These electrons can move freely
between the layers; it is due to these mobile electrons that graphite is an electrical and thermal
conductor.

Summary
The summary of the properties of different solids is given in table 1.

Types of solid Constituents Binding forces Properties Example

Simple van der Waals’ Volatile Noble gas
Molecular
molecules Dipole-dipole Insulators CH4, CO2, Cl2
solids
Hydrogen bonds
Ionic solids ions Electrostatic Non-volatile NaCl, KCl
attractions between Conduct electricity in
cations and anions molten and solution forms
conduct electricity
Have high mpt and bpt
Covalent atoms Covalent bonds Very high bpt and mpt. Diamond
solids Insulators Silicon, SiO2
Metallic atoms Metallic bonds or Conductors in molten and Na, Cu, Fe
solids molecular orbitals solid forms
overlap in crystal Moderately high mpt/bpt.

Trial 3
Complete the table below about the properties of different types of crystals (full page) (9marks)
Types of crystals Forces holding the Melting points (state Form in which electricity
crystals whether low, moderate, is conducted if any
high or very high
Metal

Ionic

Network covalent

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Suggested answers to the trials
Trial 1
(c) Carbon dioxide has simple molecules which are bonded by weak van der Waals forces which can
easily be overcome at a temperature below room temperature and is a gas at room temperature.
Silicon dioxide is a giant molecule in which each silicon atom is bonded to four oxygen atoms and
each oxygen atom is bonded to two silicon atoms by strong covalent bonds that require high
temperature to be broken. The reason why it is a solid.

(d) Graphite consists of hexagonal layers of carbon where each carbon atom is covalently bonded to 3
others. The layers are held by weak forces which allow the layers to slide over one another making
it slippery. Diamond has a giant structure in which strong covalent bonds extend in a 3-dimensional
network giving diamond a very hard structure.

Trial 2
(a) The coordination number of each ion is six, because each ion is surrounded by six opposite ions.
(b) Ionic lattice.

Dr. Bbosa Science

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