Structure of Solids Notes

STRUCTURES OF SOLIDS

Solid substances maybe classified into four types based on their crystalline forms (i.e. the
crystals make them up).

These four crystalline forms are as follows:

1. Ionic crystals
2. Simple molecular crystals
3. Atomic crystals ( also called – Giant molecular or macromolecular crystals)
4. Metallic crystals.

Delocalized – means a object or entity has no fixed location but is able to move around at
will.
Mobile – means an object or entity is able to move from place to place.

A Lattice – is a regular or ordered arrangement of atoms, molecules or formula units in a

crystalline solid.

Crystalline – is a term used to describe solids that have a regular or ordered internal
arrangement of atoms, molecules, and formula units characteristic of crystals.

The Crystals or Structures of Ionic Solids

In the solid state ionic compounds exist as crystals ( in crystalline form).

The ions in solid ionic compounds are packed together in a regular repeating arrangement
of formula units/ions called a lattice.
Within this lattice oppositely charged ions (i.e. + ve cations, and –ve anions) are held
together by strong electrostatic attractive forces called ionic bonds.

Figure [E] below shows only a part of the three dimensional structure or crystals of a
typical ionic solid, Sodium Chloride NaCl.

Cl- ions
Na + ions
 Structure of Solids Notes

Figure [E] Shows the ionic crystal lattice of A typical Ionic Solid (Sodium Chloride)

 NB - Each Na+ ion in the lattice is surrounded by six Cl- ions and each Cl- ion is
in turn surrounded by six Na+ ions.
 NB – Not all solid ionic compounds have the same form of crystal or structure.

Many millions of sodium ions and chloride ions would be arranged in this way in a
crystal of sodium chloride to make up the giant ionic structure/crystal.

The Crystals or Structures of Simple Covalent Solids

The crystals of Solid covalent compounds are comprised of small molecules arranged in a
crystal lattice. Even though strong covalent bonds exist between the atoms within the
molecules(intra- molecular bonds), the small molecules are however held together in the
lattice by weak (intermolecular bonds) between individual molecules called Van der
Waal’s bonds (or forces) [pronounced Wan – der - Vaals].

Figure [D] below shows example of the three dimensional structure or crystals of a
typical simple molecular solid, (Sulphur).

Covalent bonds
between S atoms

weak Van der Waal forces between S8 molecules

Figure [D] Show the molecular crystal lattice of A typical simple Molecular solid
(Sulpur S8)

 NB – Other examples of solids with a simple molecular crystals include:

i) Iodine – crystals are composed of I2 molecules

Covalent bonds
between I atoms

weak Van der Waal forces between I2 molecules

Figure [E] Show the molecular crystal lattice of A typical simple Molecular solid Iodine
I2)
 Structure of Solids Notes

ii) Ice(Solid H2O) – crystals are composed of H2O molecules

iii) Dry Ice(Solid CO2 – crystals are composed of CO2molecules

The Crystals or Structures of Metallic Solids

Metals that are solids at room temperature and pressure are made of metallic crystals.
The metallic crystals are comprised of a lattice of positively charged metal cations which
is surrounded by a negative ‘sea of delocalized electrons’ from the valence shell of
neighbouring metal atoms. It is these strong electrostatic forces of attraction between the
cations and sea of mobile electrons which binds the metallic crystalline lattice/structure
together as a crystal.

Figure [X] below shows example of the metallic crystal lattice of a typical metallic solid,
(Sodium Na).

e- e- e- e- e-
-
+ ee + e + + metal cations
e- e- e- e- e- sea of delocalized electrons
e- + e- + e- + +
e- e- e- e- e-

Figure [X] Shows the metallic crystal lattice of a typical metallic solid, (Sodium Na).

The Crystals or Structures of Atomic/Giant Molecular Covalent Solids

Atomic crystals are composed of an atomic crystal lattice in which all the atoms in the
held together in a regular three-dimensional arrangement by strong covalent bonds. These
are also know as macromolecular or giant molecular crystals.

Figure [U] Shows atomic crystal

Allotropy (Polymorphism)

Allotropy (Polymorphism) is the existence of an element in more than one form in the
same physical state. The different forms of an element are called allotropes.

Allotropes are different structural forms of the same element in the same physical state.

 NB – Allotropes have different physical properties but the SAME chemical

properties.
 Structure of Solids Notes

Allotropes have different physical properties due to the difference in the arrangement of
the atoms or molecules in the element. However they have similar chemical properties.

Elements which exhibit (show) Allotropy

Element Allotropes

Sulphur Monoclinic sulphur (α - alpha)

Rhombic sulphur(β - beta)

Carbon Diamond

Graphite

Phosphorous Red phosphorous

White(yellow) phosphorous

Oxygen Ordinary Oxygen (O2)

Ozone (O3)

Allotropes of Sulphur

Both forms of sulphur consists of Sulphur, S8 molecules consists of eight sulphur atoms
joined by covalent bonds to form a ‘puckered ring’. However the shape of their
respective crystals has primarily to do with the way these puckered rings are arranged

S8 molecule
Proof of Allotropy in Sulphur

i) 1g of monoclinic or rhombic sulphur will burn to produce the same of SO2

(i.e. 2g of SO2)
ii) 1g of monoclinic sulphur (which is stable above 96o) slowly changes at r.t.p.
to 1g of rhombic sulphur (which is stable below 96o).

 NB – The transition temperature for both forms of sulphur.

 Structure of Solids Notes

Allotropes of Carbon

Both allotropes diamond and graphite consist of only Carbon atoms arranged
differently in each form.
Hence, diamond and graphite are atomic crystals (macromolecules) or giant
molecular crystals.

Proof of Allotropy in Carbon

i) 1g of either diamond or graphite will burn in oxygen to form the same mass of
CO2 (i.e. 3.7 g of CO2) and no other product.

DIAMOND

Diamond is composed of carbon atoms each bonded covalently to four other carbon
atoms in a tetrahedral pattern around it as can be seen in figure [V] below.
The whole crystal/structure is a strong and rigid crystal lattice of carbon atoms,
thereby making diamond the hardest known natural substance.

Carbon atom

Figure [V]

Since all four valence electrons of each atom are already tied up in bonds with each
other, there is none available to enable diamond to react chemically or conduct
electricity thus diamond is resistant to chemical attacks and is an insulator.
 Structure of Solids Notes

Uses of Diamond

i) To make jewellery - due to its clear, sparkling appearance and resistance to

chemical attack.
ii) To make the cutting edge of glass cutters, tips of dentist drills, cutters of rock
borers, diamond studded saws, stand drill bits of oil drilling machines.- due to
it hard rigid structure

GRAPHITE

Graphite is composed of carbon atoms each bonded covalently to three others to

produce hexagonal rings of atoms which are arranged in layers (one on top the
other). The layers of hexagonal rings are held together by weak Van der Waal
bonds/forces of attraction. The structure of is shown in figure [H].

covalent bonds carbon atoms

Van der Waals

forces between
layers

Figure [H].

As a result of these weak Van der Waal bonds/forces it does not take too much force
to cause the layers to slide easily over each other, thereby giving graphite its soft
slippery nature.
In addition to this since each carbon atom has an available (free) mobile electron not
involved in any bonding this affords graphite the ability to conduct electricity.

Uses of Graphite.

i) Mix with clay to make Pencil lead –

ii) Mixed with heavy oil or waxes to make lubricants for machines
iii) Make electrodes in electrolytic cells, batteries.