17/09/23

AQA – Bonding

What the spec says
Ionic bonding involves electrostatic
attraction between oppositely charged ions
in a lattice. The formulas of compound ions
eg sulfate, hydroxide, nitrate, carbonate and
ammonium.
Students should be able to: • predict the
charge on a simple ion using the position of
the element in the Periodic Table
• construct formulas for ionic compounds.
A single covalent bond contains a shared
pair of electrons. Multiple bonds contain
multiple pairs of electrons. A co-ordinate
(dative covalent) bond contains a shared
pair of electrons with both electrons
supplied by one atom.
Students should be able to represent: • a
covalent bond using a line
• a co-ordinate bond using an arrow.
Metallic bonding involves attraction
between delocalised electrons and positive
ions arranged in a lattice.
The four types of crystal structure:
• ionic
• metallic
• macromolecular (giant covalent)
• molecular.
The structures of the following crystals as examples of these
four types of crystal structure:
• diamond
• graphite
• ice
• iodine
• magnesium
• sodium chloride.
Students should be able to:
• relate the melting point and conductivity of materials to the
type of structure and the bonding present
• explain the energy changes associated with changes of state
• draw diagrams to represent these structures involving
specified numbers of particles.
Bonding pairs and lone (non-bonding) pairs of electrons as
charge clouds that repel each other. Pairs of electrons in the
outer shell of atoms arrange themselves as far apart as
possible to minimise repulsion. Lone pair–lone pair repulsion
is greater than lone pair–bond pair repulsion, which is greater
than bond pair–bond pair repulsion. The effect of electron pair
repulsion on bond angles. Students should be able to explain
the shapes of, and bond angles in, simple molecules and ions
with up to six electron pairs (including lone pairs of electrons)
surrounding the central atom.
17/09/23
Electronegativity as the power of an atom to attract the
pair of electrons in a covalent bond. The electron
distribution in a covalent bond between elements with
different electronegativities will be unsymmetrical. This
produces a polar covalent bond, and may cause a molecule
to have a permanent dipole.
Students should be able to:
• use partial charges to show that a bond is polar
• explain why some molecules with polar bonds do not
have a permanent dipole.
Forces between molecules:
• permanent dipole–dipole forces
• induced dipole–dipole (van der Waals, dispersion,
London) forces
• hydrogen bonding.
The melting and boiling points of molecular substances are
influenced by the strength of these intermolecular forces.
The importance of hydrogen bonding in the low density of
ice and the anomalous boiling points of compounds.
Students should be able to:
• explain the existence of these forces between familiar
and unfamiliar molecules
• explain how melting and boiling points are influenced by
these intermolecular forces.
 17/09/23

Ionic Bonding
Ionic compounds are oppositely charged ions held together by electrostatic attractions
Gp 1 form Gp 3 form Gp 6 form
X + •• - 1+ ions 3+ ions 2- ions
Gp 2 form Gp 5 form Gp 7 form
2+ ions 3- ions 1- ions

••
Na • Cl

••
To gain a full shell of Molecular ions
electrons sodium gives an OH- Hydroxide
electron to Chlorine. They NO3- Nitrate
both have full electron NH4+ Ammonium
shells. They form oppositely
SO42- Sulfate
charged ions and attract to
CO32- Carbonate
each other.
 17/09/23

Ionic Bonding
You can work out the formula of an ionic compound by Ionic compounds like Sodium Chloride have a giant
using the ‘swap and drop’ method. ionic structure

Write the 2 ions Ca2+ AND NO3- Ca2+ AND O2- Cl- ion
Swap the Charges Ca AND NO
-
3
2+
Ca AND O
2- 2+ Na+ ion
1. Regular structure
Drop the charges Ca AND (NO3)2 Ca2 AND O2
2. Cubic shape
3. Giant repeating
Simplify to lowest
Ca2O2 simplifies pattern
whole number Ca(NO3)2
ratio (if needed) to CaO
Conduct electricity when Have HIGH melting points as there
Most ionic compounds dissolve in molten or dissolved in are many, strong electrostatic
water as water molecules are polar they solution as the ions are forces between oppositely charged
can attract the positive and negative free to move around. ions. Lots of energy needed to
ions and break up the structure. overcome these forces.
 17/09/23

Covalent Bonding
•• Dative Covalent or Coordinate Bonds are
H •X F • Covalent bonding is the sharing
where ONE atom donates 2 electrons to
• of outer electrons in order for
atoms to obtain a full shell. an atom or ion to form a bond.
•• An arrow

H+
There is an electrostatic attraction represents
between the shared electrons and
XX X
•• the positive nucleus.
a
coordinate
O •X O There are single, double and triple bond.
XX • covalent bonds. More electrons ••
•• are being shared.
H •X N •X H
X •X
Covalent bonds can be represent
•X
X•X N • as lines too.
X N • H H +
• O
This is a dative
covalent bond as both
H H electrons in Nitrogen H N H
are donated to H+ ion.
H
Each carbon 17/09/23
bonded 3 times Each carbon
with 4th electron
delocalised
Giant Covalent Structures bonded 4 times
in a tetrahedral
Examples of giant covalent structures include Graphite and Diamond shape

Graphite
Layers slide easily as there are
weak forces between the
layers.
Delocalised electrons
between the layers allow
graphite to conduct electricity
as they can carry a charge.
Lots of strong Layers are far apart in
covalent bonds means comparison to covalent bond
graphite has a very length. This means it has a
high melting point. low density.
Graphite is insoluble. The
covalent bonds are too strong
to break.
Diamond
The tightly packed, rigid
arrangement allows heat to
conduct well in diamonds
Unlike graphite, diamond can
be cut to make gemstones
Very high melting point due
to many strong covalent Diamond is
bonds. It also very hard. insoluble. The
covalent bonds
Diamond doesn’t conduct
are too strong
electricity well as it doesn’t
to break.
have any delocalised
electrons.
 17/09/23

Shapes of Molecules – the rules

Use the number of bond pairs and lone pairs of electrons to work out the shape of the molecule

Molecules have a specific shape with specific

XX
angles. The reason is because bonds repel

XX
XX
each other equally. Bonds contain electrons so
they will want to as far apart as possible
109.5° 107° 104.5°

Lone pairs change the shape and bond angles. Lone pairs push
bonding pairs closer together. Generally for every lone pair
A Lone pair next to bond pairs repel more
you reduce the remaining bond angles by 2.5°.
than 2 bond pairs together.
(Careful! Some molecules you don’t reduce by 2.5° you will
2 Lone Pairs together repel even further
see these later on).
 17/09/23

Shapes of Molecules – the rules

Use the number of bond pairs and lone pairs of electrons to work out the shape of the molecule

BP = 4 BP = 2
•• ••
Draw your dot cross to work
LP = 0 LP = 2
out how many bond pairs
Total = 4 H Total = 4
and lone pairs you have. O
•X •X
•X
The total tells you the
H •X C •X H H H
shape. (This is tetrahedral) If
you have lone pairs you
need to replace bonds for •X Based on
lone pairs and change the
shape and bond angle.
H tetrahedral
but has 2
With ions just add electrons the central lone pairs.
Shapes Shapes Reduce bond
atom for negative ions and remove them Click these buttons
with no with angle by
for positive ions. E.g. NH4+ Nitrogen would to see bond angles
lone lone 2×2.5°=5°
have 4 electrons, all involved in bonding pairs and shapes pairs
and so would be tetrahedral.
 17/09/23

Shapes of Molecules – no lone pairs

Use the number of bond pairs and lone pairs of electrons to work out the shape of the molecule

Number of Bond 180°

Pairs and Lone Pairs Example Chemical Name of Shape

BP = 2 BeCl2 Linear
LP = 0
120°
BP = 3 BF3 Trigonal Planar
LP = 0

BP = 4 CH4 Tetrahedral
LP = 0 109.5°
BP = 5 PCl5 90°
Trigonal Bipyramidal
LP = 0 90°
BP = 6 120°
SF6 Octahedral
LP = 0
 17/09/23

Shapes of Molecules – with lone pairs

Use the number of bond pairs and lone pairs of electrons to work out the shape of the molecule
XX
Number of Bond
Pairs and Lone Pairs Example Chemical Name of Shape

BP = 3 NH3 Pyramidal 107°

LP = 1 XX

XX
XX
BP = 2 H 20 Bent
LP = 2 XX
104.5° 120°
BP = 3 ClF3 Trigonal Planar
LP = 2
XX
BP = 4 XeF4 Square Planar
LP = 2 90° Bond angle remains
XX
unchanged as the 2
lone pairs repel
equally from opposite
sides.
 17/09/23

Electronegativity
Electronegativity is the ability for an
atom to attract electrons towards
itself in a covalent bond.

The further up and right you go in the

periodic table (excluding the noble gases)
the more electronegative the element is.
Fluorine is the most electronegative

The Pauling Scale helps us to

Element H C N Cl O F
quantify how electronegative
an element is. Electronegativity 2.2 2.6 3.0 3.0 3.4 4.0
 17/09/23

Polar Bonds
Covalent bonds can become polar if the atoms attached to it have a difference in electronegativity

The bigger the difference in

electronegativity, the more δ+ δ- Cl is more electronegative than H so

H •
Cl
polar the bond will be. pulls electrons towards itself.

Cl •
X Cl X
Atoms bonded with the same OR similar
To show a polarity we put a δ+ next to
the least electronegative element and a
δ- next to the most electronegative.
Uneven distribution of electronegativity value are NOT polar. The
charge leads to polar shared electrons sit in the middle.

δ- δ+ δ-
molecules. E.g. H2O Hydrocarbons are classed as non-polar too

δ-
O X= C =X O
Look out for whole molecules that may
• •
O
appear to be polar. If the polar bonds are
δ+ • • δ+ arranged symmetrically then you have no

H H
overall polarity e.g. CO2
X X
 17/09/23

Intermolecular forces – Van der Waals

Van der Waals (Induced dipole-dipole) forces exist between atoms and molecules

δ+ δ- δ+ δ- δ+ δ-
Intermolecular forces –
Hydrogen Bonding Get weaker
Permanent Dipole-Dipole
Van der Waals

Any molecule or atom with electrons

can form a dipole when they move
near to another atom or molecule.
This occurs as electrons in a molecule
or atom can move from one end to
another. Hence creating a temporary
This temporary dipole only exists
when 2 molecules or atoms are near
by. When they move away the dipole
interaction is destroyed.

Cl Cl dipole. The δ+ on one atom or molecule will

be attracted to the δ- on another and
a force of attraction is created.
 17/09/23

Intermolecular forces – Van der Waals

Intermolecular forces –

I2
The bigger the molecule or atom, the more van der
Hydrogen Bonding Get weaker waals forces as you have larger electron clouds
Permanent Dipole-Dipole
Van der Waals When we boil a liquid we
are breaking the weak van
Van der Waals forces can hold some molecules in
der waals forces NOT
crystal structures. Iodine is an example.
covalent bonds.
Weak Van der
Waals forces We must have enough energy to overcome these forces.
holds the I2 Longer, straight chain hydrocarbons have more van
molecules der waals forces and so more energy is needed to
together over come these forces. This means the boiling point
increases.
Strong
covalent bonds BRANCHED HYDROCARBONS
hold the 2 Hydrocarbons with branches means they can’t pack
Iodine atoms together as close. This weakens the van der waals
together forces between the chains and lowers their boiling
points
 17/09/23

Intermolecular forces – Dipole-Dipole

Permanent Dipole-Dipole interactions exist in molecules with a polarity

Intermolecular forces –
Hydrogen Bonding δ+ δ- δ+ δ- δ+ δ-
H Cl H Cl H Cl
Get weaker
Permanent Dipole-Dipole
Van der Waals

The δ- part on one molecule is

There are weak electrostatic
Unlike van der waals forces, dipole-dipole attracted to the δ+ on another.
forces that exist between
molecules with a polarity interactions involves molecules with a
permanent dipole and so are stronger.

δ+ H +
IMPORTANT

Oδ-
+ Molecules that have Dipole-Dipole
+ interactions ALSO have van der waals too.
+
δ+ H + + Polar molecules (like water) can be tested by placing a charged rod near a steady
stream of a polar liquid. You should see the liquid bend towards the rod as the
+ +
molecules align to face the oppositely charged rod.
+ +
 17/09/23

Intermolecular forces – Hydrogen Bonding

Hydrogen bonding is the strongest intermolecular force and occurs when you have very electronegative elements

Intermolecular forces –
Hydrogen Bonding Get weaker
Permanent Dipole-Dipole
Van der Waals

δ+
δ+ H δ- ------H δ-
O -- δ+
XX

----H O XX
δ+ H
XX

XX

Hydrogen bonding occurs when Hydrogen on one

--

δ+ H δ- Show hydrogen bonding

---

molecule forms a bond with the lone pair on Nitrogen,

O
XX

using dotted lines Oxygen or Fluorine (3 most electronegative elements)

between lone pairs and
δ+ H
IMPORTANT
XX

Hydrogen Molecules that have Hydrogen Bonding ALSO

have van der waals AND Dipole-Dipole too.
 17/09/23

Intermolecular forces – Hydrogen Bonding

Intermolecular forces – Ice forms a regular
Slight increase in boiling point from
Hydrogen Bonding Get weaker structure held by
HCl to HI due to increased mass of
Permanent Dipole-Dipole Hydrogen Bonding. The
molecule, hence bigger electron
Van der Waals molecules are further
cloud and more van der waals
apart This makes ice
δ+ forces.
H δ-
less dense than water.
Boiling points of hydrogen
O
XX
δ+ halides
δ+ H δ- ------H
XX
350

O --- δ+
XX

300
HF has a higher boiling
δ+ H ---H δ-
XX

point than HCl as it has 250

BOILING POINT / K
δ+ O
XX
Hydrogen bonding. 200

δ+ H
More energy needed
δ- --- H
XX

150
to overcome the
O ----Hδ+ δ-
XX

electrostatic forces. 100

δ+ H
δ+ O
XX
XX

50

H
0
XX

HF H Cl HBr HI
 17/09/23

Metallic Bonding
Metals have giant metallic lattice structures

Positive metal ions are formed as Metals are good thermal

metals donate electrons to form a conductors as the delocalised
‘sea’ of delocalised electrons. electrons can transfer kinetic
energy.
There is an electrostatic attraction e- e- e- e- e- e-
between positive metal ions and + + + + +
e- e- e- e- e -
e- Metals have high melting points
the negative delocalised electrons.
+ + + + + due to the strong electrostatic
The more electrons an atom can e- e- e- e- e- attractions.
e-
donate to the delocalised system
+ + + + +
the higher the melting point. e -
e -
e - e -
e -
e-

Magnesium has a higher melting Metals are good electrical

point than Sodium because
Magnesium can donate 2
electrons (group 2) whereas
Sodium only donates 1 per atom.
Solid metals are insoluble as the
conductors as the delocalised
metallic bond is too strong to
electrons are mobile and can carry
break
a current.
 17/09/23

The Particle Model

SOLIDS
Particles are tightly packed and in a regular arrangement which is why they have a
high density
Particles VIBRATE on the spot and can’t be compressed

LIQUIDS
Particles are tightly packed and in a RANDOM arrangement which is why they have a
high density.
Particles MOVE FREELY it is very difficult for liquids to be compressed.
Particles in a liquid have more energy than in a solid.

= = GASES
Particles are spaced out and in a RANDOM arrangement which is why they have a

= low density.
Particles MOVE FREELY it is relatively easy for liquids to be compressed.

= Particles in a gas have more energy than in liquids and solids.

=
 Polar molecules dissolve
well in polar solvents like 17/09/23

Summarising Bonding
water. Non-polar molecules
(e.g. hydrocarbons) don’t.

Usual state at Conduct Conduct

Type of Soluble in Melting and
Bonding Example room temp and electricity as a electricity as a water? Boiling Point
pressure solid? liquid?

Graphite No (difficult to High - have to

Giant Covalent Diamond No (Graphite can
Solid melt, normally No break strong
(Macromolecular) SiO2 conduct) sublime) covalent bonds

I2 Depends on Low – breaking

Simple Molecular NH3 Liquid OR Gas
(Simple Covalent) (Iodine is a solid) No No polarity of weak forces NOT
H2O molecule bonds.

NaCl High – have to

Yes (free ions break strong
Giant Ionic CaO Solid No allow electrical Yes
MgBr2 electrostatic
conduction) forces.
High - have to
Mg Yes (has Yes (has
break strong
Metallic Na Solid delocalised delocalised No
Cu electrons) electrons) electrostatic
forces.