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Fundamentals of
Inorganic
Chemisty
Ananya Ganguly
Chandigarh • Delhi • Chennai

The aim of this publication is to supply information taken from sources believed to be valid and reliable. This is not an
attempt to render any type of professional advice or analysis, nor is it to be treated as such. While much care has been
taken to ensure the veracity and currency of the information presented within, neither the publisher, nor its authors
bear any responsibility for any damage arising from inadvertent omissions, negligence or inaccuracies (typographical
or factual) that may have found their way into this book.
Copyright © 2011 Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt. Ltd

Licensees of Pearson Education in South Asia
No part of this eBook may be used or reproduced in any manner whatsoever without the publisher’s prior written consent.
This eBook may or may not include all assets that were part of the print version. The publisher reserves the right to remove any
material present in this eBook at any time.
ISBN 9788131759691
eISBN 9789332511682
Head Office: A-8(A), Sector 62, Knowledge Boulevard, 7th Floor, NOIDA 201 309, India
Registered Office: 11 Local Shopping Centre, Panchsheel Park, New Delhi 110 017, India
Contents
Preface v
Chapter 1 Periodic Properties and Chemical bonding 1.1—1.110
Chapter 2 Alkali Metals (+2) 2.1—2.33
Chapter 3 Group-II Alkaline Earth Metals 3.1—3.28
Chapter 4 Group13-Boron Family 4.1—4.56
Chapter 5 Group14-Carbon Family 5.1—5.54
Chapter 6 Group15-Nitrogen Family 6.1—6.54
Chapter 7 Group16-Oxygen Family 7.1—7.44
Chapter 8 Group17-Halogens 8.1—8.36
Chapter 9 Group18-Noble Gases 9.1—9.16
Chapter 10 Hydrogen 10.1—10.23
Chapter 11 Co-ordination Chemistry 11.1—11.55
Chapter 12 Transition Elements (d-block) and Their Compounds 12.1—12.57
Chapter 13 Principles of Metallurgy 13.1—13.48
Chapter 14 Salt Analysis 14.1—14.65
Question Bank QB.3—QB.94
This page is intentionally left blank.
Preface
In recent years, the question format of non-medical examinations like IIT-JEE and AIEEE has been
restructured with greater emphasis on the theoretical and conceptual intricacies and the application of
the underlying basic concepts and principles.
The poor performance of students in these examinations is partly due to non-availability of
a comprehensive text book which lays adequate stress on the authentic logical theoretical concept
building, numericals and related problems.
The present book grew out of my experience of classroom teaching through lectures, notes
and assignments. Effort has been made to maintain lucid style and simplicity of expression. Apart
from this, the book has numerous carefully selected examples and solved illustrations which include
almost all the previous years’ questions asked in IIT-JEE and AIEEE examinations.
Selected questions of different formats keeping in mind the recent pattern of examinations
have been listed at the end of each chapter. Solutions to almost all advanced questions have been
incorporated.
I would like to thank Showick Thorpe and Sanjay Sharma for their constant encouragement
during the publication of this book. I extend my thanks to Nitkiran Bedi for her contribution in
bringing out this book in record time. I am also thankful to the staff members of my academy for
their sincere help.
I will appreciate comments, suggestions and criticism from the readers and will incorporate
them in the subsequent editions.
Ananya Ganguly
This page is intentionally left blank.
c h a p t e r 1
Periodic Properties
and Chemical bonding
INTRODUCTION
Chemists have long tried to find patterns in the properties of the elements. Some were discovered fairly readily; for
example, elements were classified as metals, non-metals, and many of their compounds as acids, alkalis, or salts.
Table 1.1 Typical Properties of Metals and Non-metals
Metals Non-metals
Appearance and properties Solids, some with high melting Gases, or solids with low melting
points; lustrous, malleable and ductile points
Conduction of heat and electricity Very good Poor
Compounds Ionic compounds with non-metals; Ionic compounds with metals; covalent
alloys with other metals compounds with other non-metals
Charge on ions Positive Negative
Chemical nature Reducing agents Oxidizing agents
Electronegativity Low High
However, it was widely believed that there had to be an underlying reason for the patterns.
1. Prout’s Hypothesis
One of the first suggestions was due to Prout. Prout’s hypothesis was that all elements were made from a whole num-
ber of hydrogen atoms. (Be careful here: an atom’ in Prout’s time was a very different thing to our understanding of
the word.) According to him the atomic masses of the elements should be a whole number of times that of hydrogen,
i.e., they should be integers. Unfortunately, from Prout’s point of view, the results of experiments showed that the
atomic masses of many elements were not integers.
2. Dobereiner’s Triads
According to Dobereiner, when elements of same properties are kept in the increasing order of their atomic weights,
the atomic weight of middle element is equal to the mean atomic weight of remaining two elements. Such a group of
elements is called Dobereiner’s triad.
1.2 Periodic Properties and Chemical Bonding
Triad of atoms Mean of first and last element

Li Na K
7 + 39
7 23 39 = 23
2
8 + 40
Be Mg Ca = 24
2
8 24 40
Dobereiner could arrange only a few elements as triads and there are some such elements present in a triad, whose
atomic weights are approximately equal, e.g.,
Fe Co Ni
Ru Rh Pd
Therefore, this hypothesis was not acceptable for all elements.
3. The Telluric Helix
It was in 1862, that a periodic classification of the elements was developed that approached the idea we have today.
At that time A.E. de Chancourtois, a professor of Geology at the Ecole des Mines in Paris presented an account of his
telluric helix in which he indicated the relative properties of elements and their atomic weights.
He used a vertical cylinder with 16 equidistant lines on its surface, the lines lying parallel to the axes. Then he
drew a helix at 45 degree to the axis and arranged the elements on the spiral in the order of their increasing atomic
weights. In this manner, elements that differed from each other in atomic weight by 16 or multiples of 16 fell very
nearly on the same vertical line. In addition to the 16 vertical lines, de Chancourtois felt that other connecting lines
could be drawn, and that all elements lying on such lines were related in some manner. His arrangement resulted in
the proposal by de Chancourtois that the properties of the elements are the properties of numbers.
4. Newland’s Rule of Octave
A major attempt at making a link was made by new lands in 1864 (Table 1.2). He grouped elements into sets of eight
and claimed that every eighth element in the pattern was chemically similar. Newlands’ law of octaves was largely
ignored, or at best treated with mild amusement.
The first thorough attempt at relating chemical properties to atomic masses was made by the Russian.
Table 1.2 Examples of Newlands’ Octaves*
No. No. No. No. No.
H 1 F 8 Cl 15 Co and Ni 22 Br 29
Li 2 Na 9 K 16 Cu 23 Rb 30
G 3 Mg 10 Ca 17 Zn 24 Sr 31
Bo 4 Al 11 Cr 18 Y 25 Ce and Le 32
C 5 Si 12 Ti 19 In 26 Zr 33
N 6 P 13 Mn 20 As 27 Di and Mo 33
O 7 S 14 Fe 21 Se 28 Ro and Ru 35
*This is part of a table that John Newlands presented in a talk he gave to the Chemical Society on 9 March 1866. The talk was entitled The
Law of Octaves, and the Causes of Numerical Relations among the Atomic Weights’. (You might like to work out which elements G, Bo, etc.,
stand for.) Here is part of an account of the talk:
The author claims the discovery of a law according to which the elements analogous in their properties exhibit peculiar relationships,
similar to those subsisting in music between a note and its octave.... Professor G. F. Foster humorously enquired of Mr. Newlands whether he
had ever examined the elements according to the order of their initial letters?
Newlands was not at all happy about the credit that went to Mendeleeff over the discovery of the periodic law. In 1884 Newlands wrote:
Having been the first to publish the existence of the periodic law more than nineteen years ago, I feel, under existing circumstances, com-
pelled to assert my priority in this matter.... As a matter of simple justice, and in the interest of all true workers in science, both theoretical and
practical, it is right that the originator of any proposal or discovery should have the credit of his labour.
Periodic Properties and Chemical Bonding 1.3
5. Lothar Meyer’s Volume Curves

The graphs of atomic volumes against atomic weights are known as Lothar Meyer volume curves.
(i) Lothar Meyer plotted a graph between atomic weight and atomic volume (i.e., atomic weight in solid state/
density).
(ii) Elements with similar properties occupied the similar positions on the graph.
(iii) Strong electropositive elements of IA except Li, all others Na, K, Rb, Cs etc., occupied the top position on the
graph.
80
70
Atomiv Volume (c.c.)
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
81
87
35
49
53
13
17
31
1
Atomic Number
Fig. 1.1 Atomic volume versus atomic number curve
(iv) IIa group elements Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba etc., occupied the positions on the ascending part of the graph.
(v) Inert gases except He occupied the positions on the descending part of the graph.
(vi) Halogens also occupied the descending part of the graph.
nn Transition elements have very small volumes and therefore these are present at the bottoms of the curve metals
have highest atomic volumes.
6.(a) Mendeleef’s Periodic Table

nn Periodic table is based on atomic weight.
nn In the periodic table, the horizontal lines are called periods and the vertical lines are called groups.
nn The periodic table consists of seven periods and nine groups (The earlier periodic table had only 8 groups. The
noble gases were added later in the zero group because these were not discovered when Mendeleef put forward
his periodic table.
nn All the groups (except VIII and Zero groups) are divided into subgroups A and B.
nn 2, 8, 18 and 32 are called magic numbers.
(b) Merits of Mendeleef’s Periodic Table

nn Classification of elements then known, was done for the first time and the elements having similar properties were
kept in the same group.

nn It encouraged research and led to discovery of newer elements.
nn Mendeleef had even predicted the properties of many elements not discovered at that time. This helped in the dis-
covery of these elements. For example, Mendeleef predicted the properties of the following elements:
(a) ka-boron—This was later called scandium (Sc)
(b) Eka-aluminium—This was later called gallium (Ga)
(c) Eka-silicon—This was later called germanium (Ge)
nn Atomic weight of elements were corrected. Atomic weight of Be was calculated to be 3 × 4.5 = 13.5 by considering
its valency 3. Mendeleef calculated it 2 × 4.5 = 9.
(c) Defects of Mendeleef’s Periodic Table

(1) Position of Hydrogen: Hydrogen resembles alkali metals and halogens in its properties. Hence, its position was
not sure.
(2) Position of Isotopes: The isotopes have different atomic weights and the periodic table is based on atomic
weights. Therefore, isotopes should get different places in the periodic table on the basis of atomic weights.
(3) The periodic table is not fully based on increasing order of atomic weights.
(4) It is not proper to place together the elements having differing properties, such as coinage metals (Cu, Ag and Au)
with alkali metals; Zn, Cd and Hg with alkaline earth metals and metal like Mn with halogens. Similarly, Pt and
Au having similar properties have been placed in different groups.
(5) There is no indication whether lanthanides and actinides are associated with group IIIA or group IIIB.
(6) Position of Isobars: These elements have different groups when mass remains same.
(7) Lot of stress was given to valency of elements.
Modern Periodic Law and Modern Periodic Table
nn Mosley proved that the square root of frequency of the rays, which are obtained from a metal on showering high
velocity electrons is proportional to the nuclear charge of the atom. This can be represented by the following expression.
= a (Z–b) where Z is nuclear charge on the atom and a and b are constants.
nn The nuclear charge on an atom is equal to the atomic number.
nn According to modern periodic law, “The properties of elements are the periodic functions of their atomic numbers”
Modern Periodic Table

nn On the basis of the modern periodic law, a scientist named Bohr proposed a long form of periodic table that was pre-
pared by Rang and Warner.
nn In the periodic table, the horizontal lines are periods and the vertical lines are groups.
nn The periodic table has a total of seven periods and 18 groups. But according to CAS system, the number of groups is 16,
because the eighth group has been divided into three groups.
nn There are two elements in the first period eight elements in each of the second and third periods, eighteen elements in
each of the fourth and fifth period thirty two elements in the sixth period and only nineteen elements till now in the
seventh period. Total 105 elements have been discovered so far.
nn The first period is very short period, second and third are short periods fourth and fifth are long periods sixth is very long
period, while the seventh is incomplete period.
nn The lanthanides (Elements from atomic numbers 58 to 71) and actinides (elements from atomic numbers 90 to 103) are
included in the sixth and seventh periods through these have been kept outside the periodic table.
nn Period—The details about the seven periods are as follows.
(i) Each period starts with an alkali metal whose outermost electronic configuration is ns1.
(ii) Each period ends with a noble gas of outermost electronic configuration ns2np6 except He. The electronic configu-
ration of He is 1s2.
(iii) The number of elements in a period is equal to the number of necessary electrons to acquire ns2np6 configuration
in the outermost shell of first element (alkali metal) of the period. First period contains two elements.
(v) The number of elements in each period may be determined by the number of electrons in a stable configuration as under
Periods Stable electronic configuration Number of electrons From To

First 1s2 2 H (1) He (2)
Second 2s22p6 8 Li (3) Ne (10)
Third 3s23p6 8 Na (11) Ar (18)
Fourth 4s23d104p6 18 K (19) Kr (36)
Fifth 5s24d105p6 18 Rb (37) Xe (54)
Sixth 6s24f145d106p6 32(including lanthanoids) Cs (55) Rn (86)
Seventh (including Actinoids) Fr (87) Ha (105)
Electronic Basis for the Periodic Classification

With a better understanding of the part that the electron plays great role in the properties of the elements, a corresponding
understanding of the periodic system came about.
On the basis of electronic configuration, the elements may be divided into four groups:
s-block elements
nn The elements of the periodic table in which the last electron enters in s-orbital, are called s-block elements.
nn s-orbital can accommodate a maximum of two electrons.
nn Their general formulae are ns1 and ns2 respectively, where, n = (1 to 7).
nn I A group elements are known as alkali metals because they react with water to form alkali. II A group elements are
known as alkaline earth metals because their oxides react with water to form alkali and these are found in the soil or
earth.
nn The total number of s block elements are 14.
nn Fr87 and Ra88 are radioactive elements while H and He are gaseous elements.
nn Cs and Fr are liquid elements belonging to s-block.
p-block elements
nn The elements of the periodic table in which the last electron gets filled up in the p-orbital, called p-block elements.
nn A p-orbital can accommodate a maximum of six electrons. Therefore, p-block elements are divided into six groups
which are III A, IV A, V A, VI A, VII A and zero groups.
nn The general formulae of p block elements are ns2 p1–6 (where, n = 2 to 6)
nn The zero group elements having general formula ns2p6 are inert, because their energy levels are fully filled.
nn The total number of p block elements in the periodic table is 30 (excluding He).
nn There are nine gaseous elements (Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, Rn, F2, Cl2, O2 and N2) belonging to p-block. Gallium (Ga) and bro-
mine (Br) are liquids.
nn The step-like thick lines drawn in the periodic table in the p-block divides elements into metals nonmetals and metal-
loids.
d-block elements
nn The elements of the periodic table in which the last electron gets filled up in the d orbital, called d block elements.
nn The d block elements are placed in groups named IIIB, IV B, V B, VI B, VII B, VIII, I B and II B.
nn In d block elements, the electron gets filled up in the d orbital of the penultimate shell. That is why, these elements are
known as transition elements.
nn Though the total number of d block elements is 33 in the periodic table but there are only 30 transition
elements. Because only those elements are transition in which d orbital is partially filled.
nn The general formula of these elements is (n–1)s2, p6, d1–10 ns1–2 where n = 4 to 7.
nn All of these elements are metals.
nn Out of all the d block elements mercury is the only liquid element.
f-block elements
nn The elements of the periodic table in which the last electron gets filled up in the f orbital, called f block elements.
nn The f block elements are from atomic number 58 to 71 and from 90 to 103.
nn The lanthanides occur in nature in low abundance and therefore, these are called rare earth elements.
nn There are 28 f block elements in the periodic table.
nn The elements from atomic number 58 to 71 are called lanthanides because they come after lanthanum (57). The ele-
ments from 90 to 103 are called actinides because they come after actinium (89).
nn All the actinide elements are radioactive.
nn All the elements after atomic number 92 (i.e., U92) are transuranic elements.
nn The general formula of these elements is (n–2)s2 p6 d10 f(1–14) (n–1)s2 p6 d0–1 ns2 where n = 6 and 7.
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Fig. 1.2 Long form of the periodic table of the elements with their atomic numbers and ground state outer
electronic configurations. The groups are numbered 1-18 in accordance with the 1984 IUPAC recommendations.
This notation replaces the old numbering scheme of IA-VIIA, VIII, IB-VIIB and 0 for the elements
Nomenclature of Elements with Atomic Numbers > 100

The naming of the new elements had been traditionally privilege of the discoverer (or discovers) and the suggested name
was ratified by the IUPAC. In recent years, this has led to some controversy. The new elements with very high atomic
numbers are so unstable that only minute quantities, sometimes only a few atoms of them are obtained. Their synthesis
and characterisation, therefore, require highly sophisticated costly equipment and laboratory. Such work is carried out with
competitive spirit only in some laboratories in the world. Scientists, before collecting the reliable data on the new element,
at times get tempted to claim for its discovery. For example, both American and Soviet scientists claimed credit for dis-
covering element 104. The Americans named it Rutherford turn whereas Soviets named it Kurchatovium. To avoid such
problems, the IUPAC has made recommendation that until a new element’s discovery is proved, and its name is officially
recognized, a systematic nomenclature be derived directly from the atomic number of the element using the numerical
roots for O and numbers 1-9. These are shown in table. The roots are put together in order of digits which make up the
atomic number and “ium” is added at the end. The IUPAC names of the elements with Z above 100 are shown in the table.
Digit 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Name nil un bi tri quad pent hex sept oct enn
Abbreviation n u b t q p h s o e
Table 1.3 Nomenclature of Elements with Atomic Number Above 100

Atomic number Name Symbol IUPAC official name IUPAC symbol
101 Unnilunium Unu Mendelevium Md
102 Unnibium Unb Nobelium No
103 Unniltrium Unt Lawrencium Lr
104 Unnilquadium Unq Rutherfordium Rf
105 Unnilpentium Unp Dubnium Db
106 Unnihexium Unh Seaborgium Sg
107 Unnilseptium Uns Bohrium Bh
108 Unniloctium Uno Hassnium Hs
109 Unnilennium Une Meitnerium Mt
110 Unnnillium Uun Darmstadtium Ds
111 Unununnium Uuu Rontgenium* Rg*
112 Ununbium Uub * *
113 Ununtrium Uut +
114 Ununquadium Uuq * *
115 Ununpentium Uup +
116 Ununhexium Uuh * *
117 Ununseptium Uus +
118 Ununoctium Uuo +
*Official IUPAC name yet to be announced + Elements yet to be discovered
Thus, the new element first gets a temporary name, with symbol consisting of three letters. Later permanent name and
symbol are given by a vote of IUPAC preventatives from each country. The permanent name might reflect the country
(or state of country) in which the element was discovered or pay tribute to a notable scientist. As of now, elements with
atomic numbers up to 112, 114 and have been discovered. Elements with atomic numbers 113, 115, 117, and 118 are not
yet known.
Worked-out Example
1. What would be the IUPAC name and symbol for the element with atomic number 120?
Solution: From Table, the roots for 1, 2 and O are un, bi and nil, respectively. Hence, the symbol and the name
respectively are Ubn and unbinilium.
The types of elements

Using electronic configuration as the criterion, we ordinarily recognize four general type of elements; the inert gas ele-
ments, the representative elements, the transition elements, and the inner transition elements. The classification of the ele-
ments into these groups is dependent on the extent to which the s, p, d and f orbitals are filled.
(i) Inert Gases
(a) s and p-orbitals of the outer most shell of these elements are completely filled. The outermost electronic configu-
ration is ns2np6.
(b) Helium is also inert gas but its electronic configuration is 1s2.
(ii) Representative or Normal Elements
(a) Outermost shell of these elements is incomplete. The number of electrons in the outermost shell is less than
eight.
(b) Inner shells are complete.

(c) s- and p-block elements except inert gases are called normal or representative elements.
Transition Elements
(iii)
(a) Last two shells of these elements namely outermost and penultimate shells are incomplete.
(b) The last shell contains one or two electrons and the penultimate shell may contain more than eight up to eighteen
electrons.
(c) The outermost electronic configuration is similar to d-block elements, i.e., (n–1)d1–10 ns1-2.
(d) According to latest definition of transition elements those elements which have partly filled d-orbitals in neutral
state or in any stable oxidation state are called transition elements. According to this definition, Zn, Cd and Hg
(IIB group) are d-block elements but not transition elements because these elements have d10 configuration
in neutral as well as in stable +2 oxidation state.
(e) Because of the extra stability which is associated with empty, half-filled, and filled subshells, there are some
apparent anomalies in electronic arrangements in the transition series. This empirical rule is illustrated by the
chromium and copper configuration in the first d series of elements:
Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn
3d 1 2 3 5 5 6 7 8 10 10
4s 2 2 2 1 2 2 2 2 1 2
(iv)Inner Transition Elements

(a) In these elements last three shells i.e., last, penultimate and prepenultimate shells are incomplete.
(b) These are related to IIIB i.e., group 3.
(c) The last shell contains two electrons. Penultimate shell may contain eight or nine electrons and pre-penultimate
shell contains more than 18 up to32 electrons.
(d) Their outermost electronic configuration is similar to f-block element i.e., (n–2)f1–14(n–1)s2 (n–1)p6 (n–1)d0–1ns2.
(v) Typical Elements: The elements of second and third periods are called typical elements as they summarize the
properties of their respective groups.
Group I II III IV V VI VII

2nd period Li Be B C N O F
3 period
rd
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl
(vi) Elements of the seventh period after atomic number 93 (i.e., actinides) are synthetic elements and are called transu-
ranium elements.
(i) Bridge elements: The typical elements of third period are also called bridge elements as the division between
two subgroups A and B starts from these elements. In second group, Mg acts as a bridge element. The proper-
ties of bridge element are somewhat mixed properties of the elements of two subgroups as magnesium shows
similarities with alkaline earth metals (IIA) on one hand and with zinc metals (IIB) on the other.
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members of their own groups but show similarities with the elements diagonally placed in the higher groups. This
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Lithium shows similarities with magnesium, beryllium with aluminium and boron with silicon.
(viii) The elements belonging to the same subgroup exhibit either same properties or a regular gradation.
(ix) Coinage metals (Cu, Ag, Au) and Alkali metals: There appears hardly any resemblance between the members of
these two groups except that all show monovalency.
Table 1.4 Some Properties are Given Below to Justify this Statement
IA (alkali metals) IB (coinage metals)
(i) Soft metals (i) Hard metals
(ii) Low densities (ii) High densities
(iii) Low melting points (iii) High melting points
(iv) Highly reactive (iv) Less reactive, noble metals
(v) Never found free in nature (v) Found mainly free in nature
(vi) Decompose water readily (vi) Do not decompose water
The Screening Effect or Shielding Effect

In a multielectron atom, the electrons of the valency shell (outermost shell) are attracted towards the nucleus and also these
electrons are repelled by the electrons present in the inner shells. On account of this, the actual force of attraction between the
nucleus and the valency electrons is somewhat decreased by the repulsive forces acting in opposite direction. This decrease in
the force of attraction exerted by the nucleus on the valency electrons due to the presence of electrons in the inner shells,
is called screening effect or shielding effect. The magnitude of the screening effect depends upon the number of inner elec-
trons, i.e., higher the number of inner electrons, greater shall be the value of screening effect. The screening effect constant is
represented by the symbol σ. The magnitude of ‘σ’ is determined by the Slater’s rules. The contribution of inner electrons to
the magnitude of ‘σ’ is calculated in the following ways:
For ns or np orbital electrons

(i) Write the electronic configuration of the element in the following order and group them as,
(Is), (2s,2p), (3s,3p), (3d), (4s, 4p), (4d,4f), (5s, 5p), (5d, 5f), (6s, 6p), etc.
(ii) Electrons to the right of the (ns, np) group are not effective in shielding the ns or np electrons and contribute nothing to σ.
(iii) All other electrons in the (ns, np) group contribute to the extent of 0.35 each to the screening constant (except for Is
for which the value is 0.30).
(iv) All the electrons in the (n – l) th shell contribute 0.85 each to the screening constant.
(v) All the electrons in the (n – 2) th shell or lower contribute 1.0 each to the screening constant.
For d- or f-electron, rules (i) to (iii) remain the same but rules (iv) and (v) get replaced by the rule (vi).
(vi) All the electrons in the groups lying left to (nd, nf) group contribute 1.0 each to the screening effect.
Example 1. Calculation of screening constants of alkali metals for valency electrons.
Li 2,1 = 2 × 0.85 = 1.7
Na 2, 8, 1 = 8 × 0.85 + 2 × 1 = 8.8
K 2,8,8,1 = 8 × 0.85 + 10 × 1 = 16.8
Rb 2,8,18,8,1 = 8 × 0.85 + 28 × 1 = 34.8
Cs 2,8, 18, 18,8, 1 = 8 × 0.85 + 46 × 1 = 52.8
Example 2. Calculation of screening constants of members of second period for valency electrons.
Li 2, 1 = 2 × 0.85 = 1.7
Be 2, 2 = 0.35 + 2 × 0.85 = 2.05
B 2,3 = 2 × 0.35 + 2 × 0.85 = 2.40
C 2,4 = 3 × 0.35 + 2 × 0.85 = 2.75
N 2,5 = 4 × 0.35 + 2 × 0.85 = 3.10
O 2, 6 = 5 × 0.35 + 2 × 0.85 = 3.45
F 2,7 = 6 × 0.35 + 2 × 0.85 = 3.80
Ne 2,8 = 7 × 0.35 + 2 × 0.85 = 4.15
Example 3. Calculation of screening constant in zinc (a) for a 4s-electron (b) for 3d electron.
(a) The electronic configuration of zinc (30) is,
(1s)2 (2s2p)8 (3s3p)8 (3d)1° (4s)2

σ = 10 × 1.0 + 18 × 0.85 + 1 × 0.35 = 25.65
(b) For 3d-electron,
σ = 18 × l.0 + 9 × 0.35 = 21.15
It is clear from the examples (1) and (2) that the magnitude of screening constant in the case of s- and p-block ele-
ments increases in a period as well as in a group as the atomic number increases.
From the example (3), it is evident that the electrons in different orbitals are differently affected by the same nuclear
charge depending upon their proximity to the nucleus.
Effective Atomic Number

Due to screening effect the valency electron experiences less attraction towards nucleus. This brings decrease in the nuclear
charge (Z) actually present on the nucleus. The reduced nuclear charge is termed effective nuclear charge and is repre-
sented by Z*. It is related to actual nuclear charge (Z) by the following formula:
Z* = (Z – σ) where a is screening constant.
It is observed that magnitude of effective nuclear charge or effective atomic number increases in a period when we
move from left to right.
II period Li Be B C N O F Ne
Z 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
σ 1.7 2.05 2.40 2.75 3.10 3.45 3.80 4.15
Z* = (Z – σ) 1–3 1.95 2.60 3.25 3.90 4.55 5.20 5.85
In a subgroup of normal elements the magnitude of effective atomic number remains almost the same.
Alkali group Li Na K Rb Cs
Z 3 11 19 37 55
σ 1.7 8.8 16.8 34.8 52.8
Z* = (z - σ) 1.3 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2
IIA group Be Mg Ca Sr Ba
Z 4 12 20 38 56
σ 2.05 9.15 17.15 35.15 53.15
Z* = (Z-σ) 1.95 2.85 2.85 2.85 2.85
Atomic radius
(i) The radius of an atom may be taken as the distance between atomic nucleus and the outermost shell containing
electrons of the atom.
(ii) According to the heisenberg’s uncertainty principle the position of a moving electron can not be accurately deter-
mined. So the distance between the nucleus and the outermost electron is uncertain.
(iii) Atomic radius can be determined indirectly from the inter nuclear distance between the two atoms in a gaseous
diatomic molecule. This internuclear distance between the two atoms is called bond length.
(iv) The inter nuclear distance between the two atoms can be measured by × – ray diffraction or spectroscopic studies.
(v) Covalent radius: One half of the distance between the nuclei (internuclear distance) of two covalently bonded atoms
in a homodiatomic molecule is called the covalent radius of that atom. The covalent bond must be single covalent
bond. The covalent radius (rA) of atom A in a molecule A2 may be given as:
dA–A
rA =
2
i.e., the distance between nuclei of two single covalently bonded atoms in a homodiatomic molecule is equal to the
sum of covalent radii of both the atoms.
dA–A = rA + rA
In a heterodiatomic molecule AB where the electronegativity of atoms A and B are different, the experimental
values of internuclear distance dA-B is less than the theoretical values (rA + rB). According to Schomaker and Steven-
son (1941),
DA–B = rA + rB – 0.09 ∆x
Where ∆x is the difference of electronegativities of the atoms A and B.
According to Pauling – If the electronegativities of the two atoms A and B are xA and xB respectively then,
DA–B = rA + rB – (C1xA – C2xB)
C1 and C2 are the Stevenson’s coefficients for atoms A and B respectively.
Metallic Radius
Metal atoms are assumed to be closely packed spheres in the metallic crystal. These metal atom spheres are considered to
touch one another in the crystal. One half of the internuclear distance between the two closest metal atoms in the metallic
crystal is called metallic radius.
Metallic radius > Covalent radius
For example – Metallic radius and covalent radius of potassium are 2.3 Å and 2.03Å respectively.
Van der waal’s radius or collision radius

The molecules of non metal atoms are generally gases. On cooling, the gaseous state changes to solid state.
In the solid state, the non metallic elements usually exist as aggregations of molecules are held together by Van der
Waal forces. One half of the distance between the nuclei of two adjacent atoms belonging to two neighbouring mol-
ecules of a compound in the solid state is called Van der Waal’s radius.
It may also be defined as half of the inter nuclear distance of two non bonded neighbouring atoms of two adjacent
molecules.
ERQGHG QRQERQGHG
LQWHUQXFOHDU c c LQWHUQXFOHDU
GLVWDQFH GLVWDQFH
c
FRYDOHQWYDOXHV c 9DQGHU:DDO¶VUDGLXV
Fig. 1.3
Van der Waal’s radius > metallic radius> covalent radius

The Van der Waal’s radius and Covalent radius of Chlorine atom are 1.80Å and 0.99Å respectively.
Ionic Radius
A neutral atom changes to a cation by the loss of one or more electrons and to an anion by the gain of one or more electrons.
The number of charge on cation and anion is equal to the number of electrons lost or gained respectively. The ionic radii of
the ions present in an ionic crystal may be calculated from the internuclear distance between the two ions.
It is defined as the distance between the nucleus and outermost shell of an ion or it is the distance between the
nucleus and the point where the nucleus exerts its influence on the electron cloud.
(i) Radius of a cation: A cation is formed by removing one or more electrons from a neutral atom. Hence, the ionic
radii of a cation is always less than the atomic radii of that very atom. This is due to the fact that nuclear charge
in the case of a cation is acting on lesser number of electrons and pulls them closer.
Na Na+
Number of e = –
11 10
Number of p = 11 11
1s22s22p63s1 1s22s22p6
Reasons
(a) The effective nuclear charge increases. For example, in Na atom, 11 electrons are attracted by 11 protons and in
Na+, 10 electrons are attracted by 11 protons. Thus in the formation of cation, number of electrons decreases and
nuclear charge remains the same.
(b) Generally, the formation of cation results in the removal of the whole outer shell.
(c) Interelectronic repulsion decreases. The interelectronic repulsion in Na is among 11e – and in Na+ among 10e – .
(ii) Radius of an anion: In the case of negative ion or an anion, as electron or electrons are added to the neutral atom,
the nuclear charge acts on more electrons so that each electron is held less tightly and the electron cloud expands.
Thus, the size of an anion is more than its parent atom.
Na Na+ Mg Mg2+ F F– Cl Cl–
1.54 Å 0.95 Å 1.36 Å 0.65 Å 0.72 Å 1.36 Å 0.99 Å 1.81 Å
Cl Cl–
Number of e– = 17 18
Number of p = 17 17
Reasons
(a) The effective nuclear charge decrease in the formation of anion. Thus the electrostatic force of attraction between
the nucleus and the outer electrons decreases and the size of the anion increases.
(b) Interelectronic repulsion increases.
(iii) Isoelectronic series: A series of atoms, ions and molecules in which each species contains same number of electrons
but different nuclear charge is called isoelectronic series.
1± 2± )± 1H 1D 0J

1XPEHURIH±
1XPEHURIS

(a) Number of electrons is same.
(b) Number of protons is increasing.
(c) So the effective nuclear charge is increasing and atomic size is decreasing. In an isoelectronic series atomic size
decreases with the increase of charge.
Some of the examples of isoelectronic series are as under:
(i) S2– , Cl – , K + , Ca 2 + , Sc3+
(ii) So2, NO3– , CO32–
(iii) N2, CO , CN −
(iv) NH3, H3O+
These can be explained on the basis of z/e ratio.
 Nuclear charge 
 No. of electron  Whenever z/e ratio increases, the size decreases and when z/e ratio decreases, the size increases.
Na Na+ Cl Cl– Fe2+ Fe3+

11 11 17 17 26 26
z/e = 1.0; = 1.1; = 1.0; = 0.95; = 1.08; = 1.13
11 10 17 18 24 23
Isoelectronic species (ions or atoms) are those which have same number of electrons. For such species the size de-
creases with an increase of atomic number. This is illustrated in the following table:
Atom or Ion Atomic number z No. of electrons e z/e ratio Size in A

C 4–
6 10 0.6 2.60
N3– 7 10 0.7 1.71
O2– 8 10 0.8 1.40
F– 9 10 0.9 1.30
Ne 10 10 1.0 1.12
Na+ 11 10 1.1 0.95
Mg2+ 12 10 1.2 0.65
Al3+ 13 10 1.3 0.50
H+ and Cs+ are the smallest and largest cations respectively.

H– and I– are the smallest and largest anions respectively.
Periodicity in atomic radius and ionic radius

1. For normal elements
(a) In a period from left to right effective nuclear charge increases because the next electron fills in the same shell.
So the atomic size decreases. For example, the covalent radii of second period elements in Å are as follows:
Li Be B C N O F
1.23 0.89 0.80 0.77 0.74 0.73 0.72
(b) In a group moving from top to bottom the number of shells increases. So the atomic size increases. Although the
effective nuclear charge increases but its effect is negligible in comparison to the effect of increasing number of
shells. For example the covalent radii of IA group elements in Å are as follows:
Li Na K Rb Cs
1.23 1.57 2.03 2.16 2.35
2. For inert gases
The atomic radius of inert gas (zero group) is shown largest in a period because of its Van der Waal’s radius which is
generally larger than the covalent radius. The Van der Waal’s radius of inert gases also increases in moving from top
to bottom in a group.
3. For transition elements
There are three series of transition elements:
3d – Sc (21) to Zn (30)
4d – Y (39) to Cd (48)
5d – La (57), Hf (72) to Hg (80)
(a) From left to right in a period

(i) The atomic size decreases due to the increase in effective nuclear charge.
(ii) In transition elements, electrons are filled in the (n–1)d orbitals. These (n–1)d electrons screen the ns elec-
trons from the nucleus. So the force of attraction between the ns electrons and the nucleus decreases.
This effect of (n–1)d electrons over ns electrons is called shielding effect or screening effect. The atomic
size increases due to shielding effect and balance the decrease in size due to increase in nuclear charge to
about 80%.
(iii) Thus moving from left to right in a period, there is a very small decrease in size and it may be considered
that size almost remains the same.
(iv) In the first transition series, the atomic size slightly decreases from Sc to Mn because effect of effective
nuclear charge is stronger than the shielding effect. The atomic size from the Fe to Ni almost remains the
same because both the effects balance each other. The atomic size from Cu to Zn slightly increases because
shielding effect is more than effective nuclear charge due to d10 structure of Cu and Zn. The atomic radii of
the elements of 3d transition series are as under.
Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn
1.44 1.32 1.22 1.18 1.17 1.17 1.16 1.15 1.17 1.25
4. Inner transition elements
As we move along the lanthanide series, there is a decrease in atomic as well as ionic radius. The decrease in size is
regular in ions but not so regular in atoms. This is called lanthanide contraction. The atomic radii in Å are as under:
La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd
1.88 1.82 1.83 1.82 1.81 1.80 2.04 1.80
Tb Dy Ho Er Yb Lu
1.78 1.77 1.76 1.75 1.94 1.73
There are two peaks one at Eu (63) and other at Yb (70). This is due to the difference in metallic bonding. Except
Eu and Yb other lanthanides contribute three elctrons in metallic bond formation. These two atoms contribute two
electrons in the bond formation leaving behind half-filled and completely filled 4f-orbitals respectively.
Cause of lanthanide contraction

In lanthanides the additional electron enters into (n-2)f orbital. The mutual shielding effect of (n-2)f electrons is very little
because the shape of f-subshell is very much diffused. Thus the effective nuclear charge increases in comparison to the
mutual shielding effect of (n-2) f electrons. The outer electrons are attracted more by the nucleus. Consequently the atomic
and ionic radii decreases from La (57) to Lu (71)
This type of contraction also occurs in actinides. The jump in contraction between the consecutive elements in the
actinides is greater than lanthanides. This is due to the lesser shielding of 5f-electrons which are therefore pulled more
strongly by the nucleus.
In a group
(i) The atomic radius of elements increases moving from first transition series (3d) to second transition series (4d). This
is due to the increase in number of shells with the increase in atomic number.
(ii) The atomic radii of second (4d) and third (5d) transition series in a group is almost same except Y(39) and
La (57)
In third transition series, there are fourteen lanthanides in between La (57) of III B and Hf (72) of IV B groups,
so the atomic radius of Hf(72) decreases much due to lanthanide contraction in lanthanides. The difference in the
nuclear charge in the elements of a group in first and second transition series is + 18 units while this difference in
second and third transition series is + 32 units except Y (39) → La(57). Due to the increase of + 32 units in the
nuclear charge there is a sizable decrease in the atomic radius which balances the increase in size due to the increase
in number of shells.
So in a group moving from second to third transition series, the atomic radii of the elements almost remain the
same except IIIB. The difference is about 0.02Å.
Worked-out Examples
2. The correct order of radii is (IIT 2000)
(a) N < Be < B (b) F– < O2– < N3– (c) Na < Li < K (d) Fe3+ < Fe2+ < Fe4+
Ans. As we go from F to O to N, the positive charge in the nucleus decreases. This causes decrease in nucleus-
electron attraction causing the electron cloud to spread more in space.
Also, larger negative charge involves larger electron-electron repulsion causing spreading of electron cloud in
space.
3. According to the Periodic law of elements, the variation in properties of elements is related to their
(AIEEE 2003)
(a) Nuclear masses (b) Atomic numbers
(c) Nuclear neutron-proton number ratio (d) Atomic masses
Ans. (b) According to modern periodic law, the properties of the elements are repeated after certain regular intervals
when these elements are arranged in order of their increasing atomic Numbers.
4. The reduction in atomic size with increase in atomic number is a characteristic of elements of (AIEEE 2003)
(a) d-block (b) f-block
(c) radioactive series (d) high atomic masses.
Ans. (a)
5. The set representing the correct order of ionic radius is:
(a) Li+ > Be2+ > Na+ > Mg2+ (b) Na+ > Li+ > Mg2+ > Be2+
(c) Li > Na > Mg > Be
+ + 2+ 2+
(d) Na+ > Mg2+ > Li+ > Be2+
Ans. (d) Follow the periodic trends
6. The radii of Ar is greater than the radii of chlorine. Why?
Solution: In chlorine, the radii means the atomic or covalent radii which is actually half the intermolecular
distance between 2 atoms whereas in Argon the radii means the Van der Waal’s radii as Argon is not a diatomic
molecule. Van der Waal’s radii is actually half the distance between adjacent molecule. So Van der Waal’s radii
being larger than atomic radii, Argon, has got a larger radii than chlorine
7. Berilium and Al are placed in different periods and groups but they show the similar properties. Explain
Solution: On moving across a period, the charge on the ions increases and the size decreases, causing the pola-
rising power to increase. On moving down a group, the size increases and polarising power decreases. On mov-
ing diagonally i.e., from Be to Al these two effects partly cancel each other and so there is no marked change in
properties.
Ionization Potential
nn The energy required to remove the most loosely bound electron from the outermost orbit of one mole of isolated gas-
eous atoms or ion of an element, is called ionization energy (IE). This ionization is an endoergic or energy-absorbing
process. The corresponding potential difference to be applied to provide ionization energy to an electron is known as
Ionization Potential (IP). Hence, the ionization Energy of hydrogen is 13.6 eV and the ionization Potential is 13.6 V.
nn An electron cannot be removed directly from an atom in solid state. For this purpose, the solid state is converted to
gaseous state and the energy required for this is called sublimation energy.
nn A (g) (
IP )1
→ A +1(g) (
IP )2
→ A +2 (g) (
IP )3
→ A +3 (g)
nn The energy required to remove one electron from a neutral gaseous atom to convert it to monopositive cation, is called
first ionization potential (I IP). The energy required to convert a monopositive cation to a dipositive cation is called
second ionization potential (II IP)
nn I IP < II IP < III IP because as the electrons go out of the atom, the effective nuclear charge increases and the ionic size
goes on decreasing. Thus the forces of attraction on valence shell electrons increases and hence the order.
Factors affecting ionization potential

(i) Number of shells: With the increase in number of shells the atomic radius increases i.e., the distance of outer most
shell electron from the nucleus increases and hence the ionization potential decreases.
(ii) Effective nuclear charge: Atomic size decreases with increase in effective nuclear charge because, higher the
effective nuclear charge stronger will be the attraction of the nucleus towards the electron of the outermost orbit and
higher will be the ionization potential.
(iii) Shielding effect: The electrons of internal orbits repel the electron of the outermost orbit due to which the attraction
of the nucleus towards the electron of the outermost orbit decreases and thus atomic size increases and the value of
ionization potential decreases.
(iv) Stability of half-filled and fully filled orbitals: The atoms whose orbitals are half-filled (p3, d5, f7) or fully-filled
(s2, p6, d10, f14) have greater stability than the others. Therefore, they require greater energy for removing an electron.
However, stability of fully filled orbitals is greater than that of the half-filled orbitals.
(v) Penetration power: In any atom, the s orbital is nearer to the nucleus in comparison to p, d and f orbitals. Therefore,
greater energy is required to remove an electron from s orbital than from p, d and f orbitals. Thus the decreasing order
of ionization potential of s, p, d and f orbitals is as follows:
s>p>d>f
Periodic trends in ionization potential

(a) In a Period: The value of ionization potential normally increase on going from left to right in a period, because ef-
fective nuclear charge increases and atomic size decreases.
Exceptions
nn In second period, ionization, potential of Be is greater than that of B, and in the third period ionization potential of Mg
is greater than that of Al due to high stability of fully filled orbitals.
nn In second period, ionization, potential of N is greater than O and in the third period ionization potential of P is greater
than that of S, due to stability of half-filled orbitals.
nn The increasing order of the values of ionization potential of the second period elements is
Li < B < Be < C < O < N < F < Ne
The increasing order of the values of ionization potential of the third period elements is
Na < Al < Mg < Si < S < P < Cl < Ar
Ionization Potential of Transition Elements

nn In transition elements, the value of ionization potential has very little increase on going from left to right in a period
because the outermost orbit remains the same but electrons get filled up in the (n–1)d orbitals resulting in very little
increase in the values of ionization potential.
nn In transition element series, the first ionization potential normally increases with increase in atomic number on going
from left to right, but this periodicity is not uniform. The value of ionization potential of transition elements depends on
the following two important factors.
(a) The value of ionization potential increases with increase in effective nuclear charge.
(b) The value of ionization potential decreases with increase in shielding effect when the number of electrons increases
in (n–1)d orbitals
nn In the first transition element series, the first ionization potential normally increases on going from left to right from Sc
to Cr because shielding effect is much weaker in comparison to effective nuclear charge. The value of first ionization
potential of Fe, Co and Ni remains constant, because shielding effect and effective nuclear charge balance one another.
The value of ionization potential shows slight increase from Cu to Zn because they have fully filled s and d orbitals.
The value of first ionization potential of Mn is maximum because it has maximum stability due to fully filled s and half
filled orbitals.
Ionization Potential of Inner Transition Elements

The size of inner transition elements is greater than that of d block elements. Therefore the value of ionization potential of
f block elements is smaller than that of d block elements and due to almost constant atomic size of f block elements in a
period the value of their ionization potential remains more constant than that of d block elements.
In a group
nn The value of ionization potential normally decreases on going from top to bottom in a group because both atomic size
and shielding effect increase.
Exception:
nn The value of ionization potential remains almost constant from Al to Ga in the 13th A group. (B > Al , Ga > In)
nn In 4th group i.e., Ti, Zr and Hf the I.P. of Hf is higher than that of Zr due to Lanthanide contraction. Thus the I.P. of 4th
group varies as Ti > Zr < Hf.

Some Noteworthy Points
nn In the periodic table the element having highest value of ionization potential is He.
nn The values of ionization potential of noble gases are extremely high, because the orbitals of outermost orbit are fully-
filled (ns2 , np6) and provide great stability.
nn In a period, the element having least value of ionization potential is an alkali metal (group Ist ) and that having highest
value is inert gas (Group 18th)
Applications of ionization potential

nn The elements having high values of ionization potential have low reactivity, e.g., inert gases.
nn The value of ionization potential decreases more on going from top to bottom in a group in comparison to a period.
Therefore, reactivity increases and the atom forms a cation by loss of electron.
nn The elements having low value of ionization potential readily lose electron and thus behave as strong reducing agents.
nn The elements having low value of ionization potential readily lose electron and thus exhibit greater metallic property.
nn The elements having low value of ionization potential readily lose electron and thus oxide and hydroxides of these ele-
ments have basic property.
Worked-out Examples
8. The atomic numbers of vanadium, (V), chromium (Cr), manganese (Mn) and iron (Fe) are respectively 23, 24, 25
and 26. Which one of these may be expected to have the highest second ionization enthalpy? (AIEEE 2003)
(a) Cr (b) Mn (c) Fe (d) V.
Ans. (a) Cr has 3d5, 4s1 configuration and thus second electron is removed from 3d subshell. In rest, from 4s sub-
shell.
9. Which of the following ions has the highest value of ionic radius? (AIEEE 2004)
(a) O2– (b) B3+ (c) Li+ (d) F–
Ans. (a) O– and F– are isoelecronic. Hence have same number of shells, therefore greater the nuclear change
smaller will be the size i.e.,
O – > F–
further Li+ and B3+ are isoelectronic. Therefore
Li+ > B3+
Hence, the correct order of atomic size is.

O– > F– > Li+ > B3+
10. The increasing order of the first ionization enthalpies of the elements B, P, S and F (lowest first) is (AIEEE 2006)
(a) F < S < P < B (b) P < S < B < F (c) B < P < S < F (d) B < S < P < F
Ans. (b)
11. Which of the following should be the order of increasing values of second ionization potential of C6, N7, O8 and F9?
(1) C > N > F > O (2) C < F < N < O (3) C < F < N < O (4) C < N < F< O
Ans. (4)
Solution: The second ionization potential means removal of electron from a cation
C+1 (5e) = 1s2 , 2s2 , 2p1 N+1 (6e) = 1s2, 2s2, 2p2
O (7e) = 1s , 2s , 2p
+1 2 2 3
F+1 (8e) = 1s2, 2s2 , 2p4
Therefore, C<N<F<O
12. Which of the following should be the correct order of the second ionization potential of Li, Be, B and C?
(1) Li < Be > B < C (2) Be < B < C < Li
(3) Be < C < B < Li (4) Li < C < B < Be
Ans. (3)
Solution: Li+1 (2e) = 1s2 Be+1 (3e) = 1s2 , 2s1
B+1 (4e) = 1s2 . 2s2 C+1 (5e) = 1s2 , 2s2 , 2p1
Therefore, Be < C < B < Li
Here, Li+1 has inert configuration and B+1 has fully filled s orbital. Hence these will have high value of second
ionization potential.
13. Which of the following should have least value of ionization potential?
(1) Be+3 (2) H (3) Li+2 (4) He+1
Ans. (2)
Solution: All the above four species have one electron each, H has least number of proton. Therefore, H will have
least value of ionization potential.
14. Which of the following should have less than 11.0 eV difference between the values of first and second ionization
potentials?
(1) Mg (2) Na (3) K (4) All of the above three
Ans. (1)
Solution: Mg exhibits higher oxidation state (Mg+2) than Na (Na+1) and K (K+1)
15. The first I.P. of nitrogen is greater than oxygen while the reverse is true for their second I.P. values. Explain
Solution: The first I.P corresponds to the removal of first electron. Since nitrogen is already half-filled. So more
energy is required to remove the electron. But once the electron is removed from oxygen it gains half-filled stability
and therefore the 2nd I.P. becomes high.
16. The ionization energy of the coinage metals fall in the order Cu > Ag < Au. Explain
Solution: In all the 3 cases an s-electron in the unpaired state is to be removed. In the case of Cu, a 4s electron is
to be removed which is closer to the nucleus than the 5s electron of Ag. So I.P. decreases from Cu to Ag. However,
from Ag to Au the 14 f electrons are added which provide very poor shielding effect. The nuclear charge is thus
enhanced and therefore the outer electron of Au is more tightly held and so the IP is high.
Electron Affinity
Atoms not only lose electrons to form positive ions but also gain electrons to form negative ions. Electron affinity, as the
name indicates, is a measure of an atom’s tendency to gain an electron. The higher an atom’s electron affinity the more
likely it is to gain an electron. Quantitatively, electron affinity is the negative of the enthalpy change associated with the
addition of an electron to a mole of gaseous atoms to form gaseous ions with a 1– charge. Thermal energy is released when
an electron is added to most atoms to form a 1– ion
A(g) + e– → A– (g) + thermal energy
where A represents an atom of an element. The change shown in equation is exothermic. The energy change associated
with an exothermic change always has a-sign. The higher an element’s electron affinity, the more thermal energy is given
off when an electron is added to an atom of the element.
Period I
1
H
IA IIA 23 IIIA IVA VA VIA VIIA
3 4 5 6 7 8 9
2
Li Be B C N O F
60 –19 27 122 –7 141 328
11 12 13 14 15 16 17
3 Na Mg Al Si P S Cl
VIII IB
53 – 19 IIB IVB VB VIB VIIB IIB 43 134 72 200 349
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35
4
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br
48 – 10 18 8 51 64 16 64 112 118 –47 29 116 78 195 325
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53
5 Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo TC Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I
47 30 41 86 72 53 101 110 54 126 –32 29 116 103 190 295
55 56 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85
6
Cs Ba Lu Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At
45 31 79 14 106 151 205 223 –61 20 35 91 183 270
87 88 103 104 105 106 107 108 109

7 Fr Ra Lr Unq Unp Unh Uns Uno Une
44
Fig. 1.4 Electron affinities of the elements, kJ/mol
The most recent figure shows that electron affinity is a rather irregular periodic function of atomic number. In general,
electron affinity increases going from left to right across a row of the periodic table, reaching a maximum with the halogens
in Group VIIA. The halogens have a much greater tendency to gain an electron than the alkali metals in Group IA. Both
actual and effective nuclear charges increase across a period. Atomic radius decreases and an electron added to the outer
shell is closer to a larger positive charge in atoms on the right side of the periodic table. Thus, more energy is released when
an electron is added.
As you can see from figure, only nitrogen and the elements of Groups 2, 12, and 18 have negative electron affinities.
Energy is required to force electron into atoms of nitrogen, the alkaline earth metals (Group 2), the elements of Group 12, and
the noble gases (Group 18). Addition of an electron to nitrogen and to atoms of the elements of the groups listed is an endo-
thermic process. Because the noble gases have both high ionization energies and low electron affinities, the noble gases are
unreactive.
In atoms of elements of Groups 2, 12, and 18, all subshells that contain: electrons are filled; the next electron must go
into a higher energy subshell. The irregularities of the Group 15 elements, such as N and P, are also explained by electron
configuration. An electron added to an atom of a Group VA element must go into a p orbital that already contains an elec-
tron. The electron already present in the orbital repels the second electron. As a result, less energy than expected is released
when an electron is added to a Group VA element.
In general, electron affinity decreases going down groups in the periodic table, for example, Cl > Br > I > At (see figure
below). Going down a group, the radii of the shells increases because the principal quantum number is higher. The added
electron is further from the positive charge in the nucleus. Therefore, the quantity of energy released when an electron is
added is smaller.
Fluorine appears out of line compared to the other members of Group VIIA. The electron affinities of oxygen and
nitrogen also seem low. These three atoms are small and have high effective nuclear charges. It is surprising that so little
energy is given off when an electron is added to nitrogen, oxygen, and fluorine atoms. However, the second shell is small
and repulsions are large between the electrons already present in the second shell and the electron that is entering. In
third (and higher) period elements, the electrons already present in the outer shell are spread out through a larger volume.
Repulsions between them and the electron that is entering are smaller.

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Fig. 1.5 Variation of electron affinities of the elements with atomic number. Unfortunately, the
electron affinities of the lanthanides and of a few other elements have not yet been measured
Many properties of the first members of groups of representative elements are out of line compared with the properties
of the larger members of the group. In several cases, the properties of elements in the second period are more like the prop-
erties of the third period element in the next-higher-numbered group than they are like the properties of the other members
of the same group. Thus, lithium is similar to magnesium, beryllium to aluminum, and boron to silicon.
Worked-out Examples
17. The formation of the oxide ion O2– (g) requires first an exothermic and then an endothermic step as shown below:
O(g) + e– = O–(g), ∆H° = – 142 kJ mol–1

O–(g) + e– = O2–(g), ∆H° = 844 kJ mol–1

This is because (AIEEE 2004)
(a) O– ion will tend to resist the addition of another electron
(b) Oxygen has high electron affinity
(c) Oxygen is more electronegative
(d) O– ion has comparitively larger size than oxygen atom.
Ans. (a) O– ion exerts a force of repulsion on the incoming electron. The energy is required to overcome it.
18. In which of the following arrangements the order is not according to the property indicated against it?
(AIEEE 2005)
(a) Al3+ < Mg2+ < Na2+ < F– increasing ionic size
(b) B < C < N < O– increasing first ionization enthalpy
(c) I < Br < F < Cl– increasing electron gain enthalpy (with negative sign)
(d) Li < Na < K < Rb– increasing metallic radius.
Ans. (b) In a period the value of ionization potential increases from left to right with breaks where the atoms have
some what stable configuration. In this case, N has half-filled stable orbital. Hence has highest ionization energy.
Thus the correct order is B < C < O < N.
19. For the addition of one mole of electrons to one mole of gaseous chlorine atoms
Cl(g) + e– → Cl– (g)
what is ∆H?
Solution: The electron affinity of Cl is 349 kJ/mol. Electron affinity is defined as the negative of the enthalpy
change associated with the addition of an electron to a mole of gaseous atoms to form gaseous ions:
electron affinity = – ∆H
349kJ/mol = –∆H
–349kJ/mol = ∆H
The idea of electron affinity as a measure of tendency to gain an electron can be extended to ions. Electron affinities of
anions are negative. An electron is repelled by the negative charge of an anion and energy must be added to force an elec-
tron onto a negative ion. Addition of electrons to negatively charged ions is always endothermic. To add a second electron
to an O– ion to form an O2– ion requires 708 kJ/mol of energy:
O–(g) + e– + 708 kJ → O2–(g)
The energy needed to force an electron into an O– ion is greater than the energy given off when an electron is added to
an oxygen atom to form the O– ion:
O(g) + e– → O–(g) + 141 kJ
[ O(g) + e – 
→ O – (g) + 141 kJ] + [O – (g) + e – + 708 kJ 
→ O 2 (g)]
Addition of above equations and gives:
O(g) + 2e – + 567 kJ 
→ O 2– (g)
Thus, the formation of an oxide ion, O2–, in the gas phase is endothermic. In addition, entropy (disorder) decreases when
one oxygen atom and two electrons combine to form an oxide ion. Because of the combined unfavourable effects of both
energy and entropy changes, oxide ions, O2–, are not formed spontaneously in the gas phase.
However, oxide ions are common in solids. In solids, the negatively charged oxide ions are close to positively
charged ions. The attraction between oppositely charged ions is large and the combination of anions and cations is very
exothermic.
Periodicity in electron affinity:
(i) In general electron affinity value increases on moving from left to right in a period because effective nuclear charge
increases.
Exceptions
(a) The electron affinity value of alkaline earth metals of IIA group is zero.
(b) Electron affinity value of alkali metals of IA group is also approximately zero because these elements have the
tendency of losing the electron instead of gaining the electron.
(c) Electron affinity values of nitrogen and phosphorous (15) are lesser than the electron affinity values of carbon
and silicon respectively. It is due to the comparatively stable half-filled configuration (np3) of nitrogen and phos-
phorus and the tendency to acquire the stable np3 configuration by the gain of one electron in carbon and silicon
(np)2.
(d) The theoretical value of the electron affinity of zero group inert gas elements is zero due to stable s2p6 configura-
tion.
(ii) In a group moving from top to bottom the electron affinity value of elements decreases because the atomic size
increases.
Exceptions
(a) Electron affinity values of second period elements are smaller than the electron affinity values of third period
elements of group 15 to 17. This unexpected behaviour can be explained by the very much high value of charge
densities, of second period elements due to much smaller size. The electron being added experiences compara-
tively more repulsion and the electron affinity value decreases.
(b) The electron affinity of fluorine (Second period) is less than the electron affinity of chlorine (third period).
2p-orbitals in fluorine are much more compact than 3p-orbitals of chlorine. So the electron being added in
2p-orbitals experiences comparatively more repulsion and the electron affinity value decreases.
Worked-out Example
20. Electron affinity of SF5 is among the highest known but that of SF6 is quite modest.
Solution: Sulphur in SF6 is saturated in terms of maximum covalency and maximum co-ordination number and
so it has very little tendency to attract electron. In SF5 which is actually a free radical so it has got a very strong
tendency to attract an electron to fulfill its covalency and co-ordination number. Therefore the electron affinity of
SF5 is high.
Electrovalent or covalent—the concept of electronegativity

Electronegativity is a measure of the power of an atom to attract electrons; it involves the two terms, ionization energy
and electron affinity. Mulliken has defined electronegativity as the arithmetical mean of the first ionization energy and the
electron affinity of an atom. Pauling’s definition is somewhat different and it is his electronegativity values that are given in
Table. Fluorine, the most electronegative element, is given an arbitrary value of 4.0 and the electronegativities of the atoms
of other elements are related to it.
Table 1.5 The Pauling Electronegativity Values of Some Elements
H
2.1
Li Be B C N O F
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl
0.9 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.1 2.5 3.0
K Ca — Ge As Se Br
0.8 1.0 1.7 2.0 2.4 2.8
Rb Sr — Sn Sb Te I
0.8 1.0 1.7 1.8 2.1 2.4
Cs Ba
0.7 0.9
As the table shows, electronegativity decreases down a particular group. This is because the atom becomes progres-
sively larger and the inner electron shells decrease the attraction between the positive nucleus and the peripheral electrons.
Electronegativity increases across a particular period from alkali metal to halogen, since the progressive increase in nuclear
charge exerts a contracting effect on the electron shells (in the same period, additional electrons reside in the same shell).
A bond formed between two atoms of similar electronegativity will be essentially covalent. Increase in electro-
negativity of one atom will result in that atom having greater control over the bonding pair of electrons, i.e., the co-
valent bond will be polarized. Further increase in electronegativity will result in increased polarity of the bond until
eventually the electron pair can be considered to reside almost entirely on one atom, i.e., an electrovalent bond will be
established, thus:
ä + ä–
A:X A:Y A+ : Z–
covalent bond polarized covalent bond electrovalent bond
electronegativities of the atoms increase in the order X < Y < Z.

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[333] Sura ix. 30.
[334] In some treaties given by Belâdzori and others, as
concluded at the first conquest, some of these disabilities are
mentioned; but I doubt their genuineness. Though the law was
such, the practice varied greatly. Under intolerant Caliphs, such
as the orthodox Abbassides, the poor Christians were always
liable to have a fresh order issued to demolish all but their ancient
churches, close the Christian schools, &c.
[335] According to Caussin de Perceval, the strongholds along
the Tigris, as well as the Euphrates—Tekrît, Hît, &c.—were only
now reduced by the Arabs; but, according to the best traditions,
these towns fell into the hands of the Moslems, shortly after the
battle of Câdesîya.
[336] The story of this inroad and widespread rising is told by
tradition with the extremest brevity; but it is very evident that the
position of Abu Obeida must, for some little time, have been very
critical. Lebeau conjectures that the naval attack was led from
Egypt by Constantine, the son of Heraclius; and M. Caussin de
Perceval thinks that this is probable (vol. iii. p. 512).
[337] It seems almost certain that Khâlid did so serve, though
there are other traditions to the effect that he never served under
any other general than Abu Obeida. He may have led an
independent expedition.
[338] Now Diâr Bekr.
[339] Byzantine historians tell us that the Roman governor of
Edessa (Roha) concluded a treaty with Iyâdh, by which he bound
himself to pay 100,000 pieces of gold, as black-mail, with the view
of preserving his province from Saracen inroad, but that Heraclius
disowned the humiliating condition, and deposed the governor.
There is no hint of this in our Arabian authorities.
[340] Four thousand of the Beni Iyâdh were sent back in a
body to Mesopotamia from Asia Minor, and resumed their
allegiance to the Caliph, though continuing to profess the
Christian faith. The remainder dispersed on the borders of the two
kingdoms.
[341] That is, their tax was called úshr (‘tenth’), the tithe paid
by the believer, instead of jazia. It may be doubted whether the
intolerant condition, forbidding the education of the children in
Christian doctrine, was meant otherwise than as a nominal
indication of the supremacy of Islam. It certainly was not enforced
(if at all) with any rigour, for we read of this great tribe continuing
in the profession of Christianity under the Omeyyad, and even
under the Abbasside, dynasties. And in still later times they had
their bishops at Ana, on the Euphrates. (See Caussin de
Perceval, v. iii. p. 324.)
We now part with that invaluable author, whose history closes
with this narrative.
[342] Nothing illustrates the vagueness of the Syrian narrative
so forcibly as the uncertainty of the year in which Cæsarea fell.
Byzantine historians make the siege last seven years, and place
the fall in the year a.h. 19, that is, a.d. 640. Various traditions
place it in every year between a.h. 14 and a.h. 20, and represent
the siege as having lasted, some three, some four, some seven
years.
A Jew is said to have betrayed the town by discovering to the
Arabs an undefended aqueduct, through which they effected an
entrance. The population was mixed; 70,000, we are told, were
Greeks, fed (murtazac) from the public stores; 30,000
Samaritans; and 200,000 (?) Jews. It was a sad fate that of the
captives. It is mentioned incidentally that two were made over to
the daughters of Asâd ibn Zorâra, one of the twelve leaders, in
place of two from Ain Tamar, who had died in their service.
Multitudes of Greeks—men and women—must have pined
miserably in a strange land and in hopeless servitude. And
amongst these there must have been many women of gentle birth
forced into menial office, or if young and fair to look upon,
reserved for a worse fate—liable, when their masters were tired of
them, to be sold into other hands. No wonder that Al Kindy, in his
Apology, inveighs, with scathing denunciation, against the slavery
practised in these Moslem crusades.
[343] Calansua, or helmet, worn by the captains of the Syrian
army.
[344] Khâlid is no great favourite of Abbasside tradition. He
belonged to a branch distant from that of the Prophet, which
attached itself to the Omeyyads, of whom, in the struggle with Aly,
Abdallah son of Khâlid was a staunch adherent.
The general outline of Khâlid’s case is clear, though there is
variety in the details. According to some accounts, Omar returned
to him all the property he had confiscated. Others say that, when
pressed to do so, he said, ‘Nay, that be far from me. I am but the
agent of the Moslems, and am bound to administer their property
faithfully. I will never give it back.’
Tabari gives yet another account. Omar wrote to Abu Obeida
commanding him to arraign Khâlid; but adding that if he would
confess his guilt in the affair of Mâlik ibn Noweira, he would
pardon him and restore him to his Government. Khâlid repaired
for counsel to his sister Fâtima, then with her husband in Syria.
She dissuaded him from confessing; for if he did so, it would only
give Omar—who was determined on his ruin—a handle to depose
him with disgrace. He bent down, and, kissing her forehead, said:
‘It is the truth, my sister.’ So he returned to Abu Obeida, and
refused to make any confession. Thereupon Bilâl, as in the text,
stripped off his kerchief, and so on, as in the text. At the
conclusion of the trial Abu Obeida, by order of the Caliph,
confiscated half of his property, even to his sandals—taking one
and leaving the other.
[345] For an account of the persecution and martyrdom,
avenged by the invasion of the Abyssinian Negus, see Life of
Mahomet, vol. i. p. clxii. For the treaty of Mahomet, vol. iii. p. 299
(second edition, p. 158).
[346] The expulsion of the Jews is ordinarily assigned to the
twentieth year of the Hegira; that of the Christians took place
earlier. For the conquest of Kheibar, see Life of Mahomet, p. 395;
and for the death-bed saying of the Prophet, ibid. p. 503. That the
Peninsula should be wholly and exclusively Moslem was a
sentiment so closely connected with the inspiration of Mahomet,
when he declared in the Corân that he was ‘sent a prophet to the
Arabs,’ and so forth, that it might well have recurred in the
feverish delusions of his last illness. But whether or no, the
utterance—whatever its purport—was evidently not taken at the
time as an obligatory command. Had it been so, we may be sure
that Abu Bekr would have made it his first concern to give effect
to it, and no other reason would have been required to justify the
act. As it is, various reasons are assigned for the expatriation of
the Christians. First, we are told that they took usury greedily;
next, that they fell to variance among themselves, and asked to
be removed; lastly, that they were growing so strong that Omar
became afraid of them. As regards the Jews, we are told that they
were guilty of murder, and also that they attacked the Caliph’s
son.
The governors of the districts to which they emigrated had it in
charge to treat them fairly. The Christians received special
consideration, and the tale of raiment (which the heads of the
community collected by yearly circuits among their people in Irâc
and Syria) was reduced by successive Caliphs as the numbers of
the tribe diminished by conversion to Islam or other cause.
Fadak, a dependency of Kheibar, was long a source of
discontent to the descendants of Fâtima, who, as we have seen,
claimed it for her patrimony; but Abu Bekr reserved it for the poor
and the kinsmen of the Prophet (Beni Hâshim). Certain of the
Omeyyad Caliphs took possession of it as their private property. It
was repeatedly released to the claimants as an act of justice or of
piety (notably by Omar II., the pietist of the Dynasty); but it was
always soon resumed again.
[347] For example, the grandsons of the Prophet got 5,000
pieces each, like the men of Bedr. As to Abbâs, his uncle, some
say he was rated at 5,000 pieces, others 7,000, and some again
as high as 12,000 or even 24,000; but these last figures are
evidently a pandering of tradition to glorify Abbâs and exalt the
Abbasside dynasty under courtly influence. Abbâs was of course
respected in the time of Omar as the Prophet’s uncle; but he
never took any leading part at the Caliph’s court; and indeed his
antecedents, during the life of Mahomet, were not much to his
credit. See Life of Mahomet, p. 417. Ayesha was allotted 2,000
pieces extra ‘for the love the Prophet bare to her;’ but according
to some, she declined to take it. The slave-concubines (Safia and
Juweiria) were at first rated at 6,000, but at the solicitation of the
other widows they were placed on an equality with them.
[348] For these see ibid. pp. 368, 371, chap. xix.
[349] Thus certain of the Dihcâns, or Persian Talookdars, who
threw in their lot with the invading army, had a high rank, with the
title to 1,000 pieces, conferred upon them.
[350] See Life of Mahomet, p. 486.
[351] The dole was fixed, after a trial of what was sufficient as
a monthly ration, for the support of sixty poor persons. Two jarîbs
of grain, accordingly, was the portion appointed, as a minimum, to
which every indigent believer of whatever race was entitled.
[352] The jealous susceptibilities of the rival tribes were
continually breaking forth; as for example, in the election of a
Muedzzin in place of the one killed at Câdesîya to proclaim the
times of prayer to the army, on which a free fight arose that nearly
ended in bloodshed.
[353] Belâdzori, p. 458.
[354] Omar gave out that if the revenues sufficiently increased,
he intended to advance the stipend of every man in the upper
grades to 4,000 dirhems. It is said also that he contemplated the
issue of a sumptuary ordinance both for Syria and Irâc, by which
1,000 dirhems were to be considered the allowance for the
support of the stipendiary’s family, 1,000 for his personal
expenses, 1,000 for house and furnishings, and the remainder for
hospitable entertainment; but that he died before he could issue
the order. The object of such a rule, and the practicability of giving
effect to it, are however doubtful.
[355] See Life of Mahomet, p. 555; and The Corân: its
Composition and Teaching, Society for Promoting Christian
Knowledge.
[356] This is the received derivation of the era called the Year
of Ashes. Others call it so because the land was pulverised, dark
and dusty, without a blade of grass or of any green thing.
[357] The secretary of Wâckidy has several pages filled with
traditions about Omar’s treatment of the famine, and self-denying
solicitude for his people. He refused to ride a horse during the
famine because it consumed corn. He chided his son for eating a
cucumber, when men around were dying of hunger, and so forth.
There may be much of exaggeration; but at the bottom of it all lies
a fine trait in Omar’s character.
[358] Ayla, on the Gulf of Acaba, at the head of the Red Sea.
[359] Here again the Kâtib Wâckidy gives a great array of
traditions regarding Omar’s prayers and the service for rain.
Some of these which notice the part taken by Abbâs (but they are
comparatively few in number) have been eagerly seized by the
Abbasside annalists to glorify the patriarch, and through him the
dynasty descended from him. The tale is cast in the supernatural
type of the Prophet’s life. A man finding a sheep which he had
slaughtered to be nothing but mere skin and bone without a drop
of blood, in his distress invokes Mahomet, who thereupon
appears to him in a vision, assures him that he shares the
distress of his people, and bids him tell Omar ‘to call to mind that
which he had forgotten.’ A general assembly is summoned in the
Great Mosque, and after much heart-searching as to what the
Prophet meant by these words, they betake themselves to prayer.
Omar seizes the hand of Abbâs, and for the sake of the Prophet’s
aged kinsman, beseeches the mercy of Heaven. Then Abbâs
himself prays, and the people weep floods of tears. The heavens
are suddenly overcast, and the rain descends. Thereupon Abbâs
is saluted as ‘the Waterer of the two Holy Places,’ i.e. of Mecca
and Medîna.
[360] We are told that Amru, to meet the famine, established a
shipping service between Egypt and the ports of the Hejâz, that
the trade in grain thus begun was permanently established, and
that prices were thereafter little higher at Medîna than in Egypt.
But Egypt was not conquered till two years later; and in the hostile
state of the border preceding the conquest, it is impossible that a
peaceful trade in corn could have sprung up. We must therefore
conclude that tradition here anticipates that which occurred
shortly after, when Omar reopened the communication from the
Nile to Lake Timsa and Suez, and Egypt found a rich customer in
the markets of Medîna and the Hejâz.
[361] The council was held at Sargh, near Tebûk, on the
confines of Syria. During the discussion Abd al Rahmân quoted a
saying of Mahomet:—‘If pestilence break out in a land, go not
thither; if thou art there, flee not from it.’ Omar’s views were more
reasonable, and he justified them by this illustration: ‘Suppose
that ye alight in a valley, whereof one side is green with pasture,
and the other bare and barren, whichever side ye let loose your
camels upon, it would be by the decree of God; but ye would
choose the brow that was green.’ And so he judged that in
removing the people from the scene of danger into a healthier
locality, he was making no attempt to flee from the decree of God.
[362] He purposed to make a circuit of all the provinces
subject to his sway. Aly, we are told, even recommended a
second hijra, or transfer of the Caliph’s court to Kûfa (evidently a
proleptic tradition anticipatory of the move eventually made by Aly
himself to that capital). What induced Omar to give up the project
of visiting Irâc is not very clear. The ordinary story is that Káb the
Rabbin (a Jew from Himyar, converted about this time, who will
be noticed more hereafter) dissuaded him from it: ‘Of evil,’ he
said, ‘the East hath nine parts, and of good but one; while the
dwellings of Satan and every kind of plague are there. On the
contrary, the West hath nine parts good, and but one of evil.’
Thereupon, the tradition proceeds, Omar abandoned the idea of
visiting Irâc.
[363] Before, having the double meaning of ‘he is before you,’
that is, in your presence; or (as they took it) ‘in advance of you,’
and farther on the road.
[364] Shorahbîl, who had the command of the province of the
Jordan (Ordonna), was put aside as weak and unfitted for the
office; or rather his government was apparently placed under that
of Amru, who was in command of all the Holy Land. The
appointment of Muâvia as the brother of Yezîd, the late governor
of Damascus, was in every way natural and expected.
[365] For Bilâl and his office of Muedzzin, see Life of
Mahomet, p. 204.
[366] The male population alone, we are told, numbered
600,000. There were 70,000 (according to others 40,000) male
Jews of an age to pay the poll tax, and 200,000 Greeks, of whom
30,000 effected their escape by sea before the siege. The baths
were 4,000 in number, the theatres 400, and the harbour held
12,000 vessels of various size.
[367] The narrative is almost more fugitive, and the chronology
less certain, than in the case of Syria. The expedition is variously
placed at from a.h. XVI. to XXV. The earlier date is due probably
to the notion (before explained) that Amru assisted Medîna with
corn in the year of famine; the later date, to the attempt of the
Greeks to retake Alexandria, a.h. 25. The best authenticated date
is that which I have followed. The received account is this. Amru
obtained permission for the campaign from Omar at Jâbia,
probably on his last visit to Syria. When the Caliph returned to
Medîna and reflected on the seriousness of the enterprise, he
repented of having allowed Amru to go on with so small a force,
and sent orders that if he had not already entered Egypt, he was
to return. Warned probably of its purport, Amru did not open the
packet till he had crossed the boundary; and so he went forward.
When Omar was informed of this he sent Zobeir with 12,000 men
to reinforce him. Other accounts say that Amru’s entire force
consisted of 12,000 men, despatched from Palestine and Medîna,
in three bodies, one after another. Some stories are told, but they
look apocryphal, of Amru having visited Alexandria, before his
conversion, many years previously.
[368] For the communications of this Mucoucus with Mahomet
see Life, pp. 385 and 440.
[369] Memphis, in the vicinity of modern Cairo. The advance
was probably made by Salahiya up the Pelusian branch of the
Nile, to the north of Ismailia and Wolseley’s recent line of march.
[370] Later historians (whose accounts, however, bear the
mark of being apocryphal) represent the Moslem army as at one
time in considerable peril, surrounded and hemmed in at
Heliopolis by the rising waters of the Nile. Mucoucus having
retired to an island on the farther side of the Nile, broke up the
bridge across it. Deputations were then sent by boat to and fro;
and the Mussulman envoys delivered speeches before
Mucoucus, exhorting and threatening the governor, much in the
style of those recited at the Persian Court before the battle of
Câdesîya. Mucoucus, who is represented as favourable to Islam,
at last entered into terms with the invaders.
[371] Heraclius died in February, a.d. 641.
[372] The tale of Amru being taken prisoner in an attack on the
outworks is not mentioned by any early authority, and seems to
possess no foundation. The story is, that when carried before the
authorities, his freedman, who had been captured with him,
slapped Amru on the face, and so deceived the Greeks into the
belief that he was a common soldier who might be set at liberty.
[373] Here again we see the same nervous fear on the part of
Omar, lest his soldiers, wandering too far, or beyond some great
river, should be surprised and cut off, as led him at the first to
forbid an advance on Persia. Ghîzeh, properly Jîzeh, j in Egypt
being pronounced as hard g.
[374] This name Câhira, or City of the Victory, is of later date.
[375] There is here, as in respect of other countries, a great
profusion and variety of tradition, having for its object to prove
that Egypt was taken by force of arms, and could therefore be
treated as a conquered country; rather than that it capitulated,
and was the subject of treaty and stipulations. There was always
a strong pressure to prove the former, as it gave the invaders a
better standing in courts of law as against the natives, in such
claims as that pressed by Zobeir.
[376] The ancient canal appears to have followed very closely
the line of the Fresh-water Canal of the present day. We are not
favoured with many particulars; but there is no doubt that during
Omar’s reign vessels did make the voyage from Cairo to the
coast of Arabia, establishing thus a regular traffic between the two
countries; and therefore the work must have been very quickly
finished by the forced labour of the teeming population.
The reader who is curious about the previous attempts to unite
the Nile with the Red Sea will find the subject discussed by Weil
(vol. i. pp. 120–122). The attempt was made so far back as the
time of Pharaoh Nechos, and subsequently by Darius, who is said
to have made communication practicable from Bubastis, on the
eastern or Tanitic estuary of the Nile, to the head of the Red Sea.
A second canal was opened, under the Ptolemies at Phacusa (Tel
Fakhûs), nearer to the Mediterranean. This (taking apparently the
line of the Salahiya canal) must have presented greater difficulties
in maintaining communication through the system of lagoons
leading to the Red Sea, and so it was too shallow to be of much
use, excepting in high flood. One of these lines (the former most
probably) was eventually deepened by Trajan, and remained
navigable to the end at least of the third century of our era. It was
this canal, no doubt, which was now cleared out and deepened by
Amru. Reference is made by Weil to the following authorities:
Bähr’s Herodotus, vol. ii. p. 158; Revue des Deux Mondes, vol.
xxvii. p. 215.
[377] This tale (which is not given by our earliest authorities)
is, no doubt, based upon a custom of the Egyptians, who, as we
learn from Lane, cast, year by year, the effigy of a maiden,
decked in bridal attire, into the river, calling it ‘the Bride of the
Nile.’ But whether the tale be real or fictitious, the sentiment
conveyed in it is indicative of that virtue in the Moslem faith which
carries the special providence of God into the life of every day.
[378] Amru is said to have been so pleased with Barca as to
declare that if he had not possessed a property and home in the
Hejâz, he would have settled there.
[379] The circumstances of the siege (a strange contrast to
the bombardment, which recently crowded the horrors of months
into so many hours) are narrated with the utmost brevity; and
indeed tradition very much confuses the second siege with the
first. Eutychius speaks of the investment of the city by the Arabs
lasting fourteen months. He also tells us that George the
Patriarch fled to Constantinople, and that for ninety-seven years
there was no Melchite patriarch for Egypt. A Maronite patriarch
seems to have succeeded.
I should mention that by later and less reliable authorities a
long correspondence is given as having passed between Amru
and Omar, in which the latter upbraids his lieutenant for not
remitting ‘as large a revenue as that which Egypt yielded to the
Pharaohs.’ Amru resented the imputation; whereupon Omar sent
his legate, Mohammed ibn Maslama, to set on foot an
investigation into the revenues of the country; and also
superseded Amru in the government of Upper Egypt by Abdallah
Ibn Abu Sarh. The correspondence (though accepted by Weil)
appears to me altogether apocryphal. It was contrary to Omar’s
character to write in the harsh and unreasonable tone of these
letters, or to press his governors for funds at the expense of the
provinces which they administered. Nor did he stand in any
urgent need of the additional revenue, as these letters would
imply; for the treasures of the world were flowing at this time in a
full tide into Medîna. As to Ibn Abu Sarh, he did not supersede
Amru till the reign of his foster-brother Othmân.
[380] The earlier operations of Otba have been narrated
above, p. 91.
[381] The ancient capital of Khuzistan, where extensive ruins
and colonnades still mark the extent and magnificence of this
once regal city. Weil doubts whether the expedition reached so far
as Persepolis. But I can only follow our authorities, who certainly
represent Alâ as advancing to its vicinity.—Weil, vol. ii. p. 87.
[382] Omar, as we shall see farther on, had an unconquerable
dread of committing his troops to the sea.
[383] Otba died the same year, a.h. 17; and Moghîra
succeeded him, as related above (somewhat prematurely), p. 91.
[384] One of the three brothers who defended Medîna in the
attack on Abu Bekr—supra, p. 14.
[385] Tostar, otherwise named Shuster.
[386] These conquests are variously placed by different
traditions in a.h. XVII., XIX. and even XX. They immediately
preceded the great campaign of Khorasan.
[387] Shushan, the ancient capital of Media, now called Sûs.
Loftus gives an interesting history and description of Sûs, with a
picture of the tomb of Daniel. (Travels in Chaldæa and Susiana,
1857, p. 322.) Our authorities say that Omar gave orders for the
body of Daniel, which (as the legend goes) was still exposed to
view, being honourably interred.
Mr. Baring, Secretary of the Teheran Legation, visited the spot
in 1881, and found it much altered. The conical steeple, shown in
Loftus’ picture, was removed, when three or four years ago the
tomb was rebuilt; and it was then surrounded by a gallery with a
railing of brass and woodwork overlooking the river.
[388] Two thousand dirhems, the same as was given to
warriors of Câdesîya and the Yermûk. And stipends of like
amount were granted to the Persian nobles who had recently
joined the Moslem army in Khuzistan.
[389] It is remarkable that one of the arguments said to have
been used, even on this late occasion, was that if the Caliph
quitted Medîna there would be a risk of the Arab tribes of the
Peninsula again rising up in apostasy and rebellion.
[390] The spies were the famous Amr ibn Mádekerib (the
warrior-poet met with before) and Toleiha. The latter (the
quondam prophet of the Beni Asad) was long in returning from his
scouting expedition—so much so that the army, becoming
anxious, began to speak among themselves: ‘What if Toleiha hath
apostatised the second time!’ When he made his appearance,
therefore, there was a shout of joy. Toleiha, hearing of it, was
much hurt at the imputation. ‘Even had it been the old Arab faith,’
he said, ‘which I once professed much more this blessed faith of
Islam, I should have disdained to change it for the jargon of these
barbarians.’
[391] The battle was fought at Bowaj Rûd. Nóeim demolished
the fortifications of Rei, and laid the foundations of a new city. The
ruins of Rei, some five or six miles south-east of Teheran, are still
to be seen of considerable extent. See Porter’s Travels in Georgia
and Persia.
[392] The Zoroastrians must still have been numerous,
especially in the outlying provinces, even in the Abbasside reigns.
The social and political inducements brought to bear on them,
and to induce a profession of Islam that was at first but
superficial, are well brought out in ‘The Apology of Al Kindy’
(Smith and Elder, 1882). See especially the speech of Al Mâmûn,
pp. xii. and 33.
[393] It is difficult to account for the origin of so strange a tale.
It illustrates the heterogeneous materials of which our authorities
are still composed.
[394] Ascalon is stated to have fallen as late as a.h. XXIII., i.e.
a.d. 643. If so, it must have held out so long only in virtue of its
maritime position. But we have no details.
[395] Omar presided every year, excepting the first of his
Caliphate, when the struggle with the Byzantine and Persian
empires was at its height. He is also said to have thrice visited
Mecca for the Omra, or Lesser Pilgrimage. (Life of Mahomet, p.
xii.)
[396] The superstition attributing the cessation of the volcano
to an extraordinary dole of alms is not worse than that which
seeks to check the devastations of Vesuvius by the liquefaction of
the blood of St. Januarius in the cathedral of Naples.
[397] Omar consulted Amru on the subject, who was of the
same mind, and said—
Dûd ála ûd
Fa in yaksar al ’ûd
Halak al dûd.
‘An insect floating on a splinter; if the splinter break, the insect

perisheth;’ signifying thereby the risks of the mariner.
[398] Otba came on a pilgrimage to Mecca, and there
besought Omar to allow him to resign his government. Omar
refused, and as Otba died on his way back, the Caliph was much
distressed. He visited his tomb to pray over it, and said that he
would have reproached himself as the cause of his death—‘had it
not been already written in the decrees of the Lord.’
[399] We have met Moghîra in the lifetime of the Prophet. First
at Hodeibia, where the murder was cast in his teeth by his uncle,
and subsequently at the demolition of the great idol of Tâyif, &c.
(Life of Mahomet, pp. 370, 467.) He was red-haired, one-eyed,
obese and repulsive in appearance, but insinuating in manner
and speech. One of his eighty concubines, when his ill looks were
mentioned, said, ‘Yes, he is a sweet conserve but on a beggarly
dish.’
The aged princess whom he demanded in marriage on the fall
of Hîra, was Hind, daughter of Nómân V. Some threescore years
before she had been married to Adi, who, when tutor to her father,
had caught a glimpse of her in the church at Hîra. Adi was
executed for some offence by the Chosroes, and Hind then retired
into a convent near Hîra, called, after her, Dâira Hind. See the
strange story of Moghîra’s coarse conduct towards her as related
by M. Caussin de Perceval, vol. ii. p. 150; and Life of Mahomet
(1st edition), vol. i. pp. clxxix. et seq.
For the law of evidence on the charge of adultery, see Life of
Mahomet, p. 313. The whole story is significant as manifesting
the deterioration of Arab life from the ancient spirit and customs,
which, amongst the Bedouins, admitted of social intercourse
between the sexes without such scandals. The lady’s name was
Omm Jamîl, of the Beni Aámir ibn Sassâá, and is said by Tabari
to have been a widow. ‘This lady used openly to visit Moghîra and
other chief men of Bussora, a custom common amongst some of
the ladies of that time.’ But the old Arab chivalry towards the sex
was rapidly disappearing under the system which raised the
slave-girl giving issue to her lord to the position of Omm Walad, or
freed-wife, and her children to the same legitimacy as the children
of the noble-born. This, coupled with the laxity of divorce and re-
marriage, was speedily lowering the position of the sex, and
rendered the strict use of ‘the Veil’ an absolute necessity for the
decent observances of social life; and gradually, but surely,
bringing about the wretched condition of women, together with the
seclusion of the harem, as we now find it in Moslem lands.
[400] In the action of Autâs following the field of Honein, his
uncle, who commanded, was slain; and Abu Mûsa took up the
banner and routed the enemy. He had more physical than moral
courage, as we shall see at the great Arbitration.
[401] It is not said that he punished the calumniator. What was
the fault of the girl which led to her imprisonment is not clear.
Possibly there was some scandal of undue influence over Abu
Mûsa, to whom some say she was given as a bribe by his
predecessor Moghîra. As regards the gift to the poet, Weil
remarks that for a smaller offence of the same kind, Khâlid was
deposed with ignominy—which is true. This is the same Ziâd of
whom we have heard before, as the putative son of Abu Sofiân,
destined hereafter to assume a prominent position.
[402] Above, p. 166.
[403] See Life of Mahomet, p. 72. He was one of the friendless
converts whose freedom Abu Bekr purchased, and thus saved
him from the persecution of the Coreish.
[404] The manner in which Moghîra got hold of the secret is
characteristic of his artfulness. He perceived Jobeir in close
conference with the Caliph. Now Omar had apprised Jobeir of his
intention to appoint him Governor of Kûfa; but bade him, for the
present, to keep the matter secret. Moghîra, suspecting the truth,
sent one of his wives with a present of viands to Jobeir’s wife,
who, caught in the trap, accepted the congratulatory gift. Moghîra,
thus assured that his suspicions were well founded, hurried off to
Omar, and representing that he had got hold of a weak fellow,
who could not even keep the secret of his nomination for a day,
got the appointment (as in the text) for himself. Some say that
Omar afterwards intended to reappoint Sád (who seems to have
been removed on very inadequate grounds) to Kûfa, but that he
died before he could give effect to the intention.
[405] Sura xxviii. 4.
[406] See Life of Mahomet, p. 64. His height only equalled that
of an ordinary man seated.
[407] An extraordinary grant of one hundred dirhems was
made to each. The civil list and pensions were settled by Omar in
his Dewân; but the means of paying the allowances was by local
assignments; so that each city was dependent on its endowment,
from which all the expenditure of administration had to be met.
[408] According to some authorities, however, neither Abu
Bekr nor Omar appointed any Câdhy to Kûfa or Bussorah.
[409] The calculation was already by strictly lunar notation of
months, according to the Arab calendar; for that had been fixed
by a Divine ordinance at the Farewell Pilgrimage. (Life of
Mahomet, p. 486.) But the commencement of the era, and
numbering of the years, was introduced only now. Note that the i
is short in Hegira.
[410] See Life of Mahomet, p. 349.
[411] Take, for example, two lines with the play on the name
Leila, or night—
I thought of Leila, but the heavens are between us;

Neither is her night (Leila) mine; nor my night hers.
[412] Many stories are told of Omar’s stern punishment of

wine-drinkers. The house of one who surreptitiously trafficked in
spirits, he caused to be burned over his head. Another culprit,
expelled for drinking, escaped to the Byzantine territory and
apostatised.
[413] See The Corân: its Teaching and Precepts, p. 61.
[414] For a description of the shameless demoralisation that
prevailed, especially among the youth of Damascus and
Baghdad, I must refer to the learned and elaborate work of H. von
Kremer, Culturgeschichte des Orients unter dem Chalifen.
[415] One of the wives was a captive maiden from Yemen,
who, having, as his bond-maid, borne him a son and daughter,
became, ipso facto, free. No mention is made of other slave-girls
in his harem; but this affords no presumption that he did not
consort with such; for no account is made of servile concubines,
and they are rarely or never mentioned, unless they chanced to
bear offspring.
It was his daughter from whom the tradition is derived that he
had no special weakness for the sex, and married chiefly for the
sake of issue.
[416] In the tradition both the maidens are spoken of as Omm
Kolthûm; but that must have been by anticipation, since they were
so called as having sons of that name.
[417] On one occasion Hind repaired to Syria and warned
Muâvia against giving money to his father, Abu Sofiân, who was
in need, lest he should incur the reproach of Omar and the
people; and Muâvia accordingly sent him away with only one
hundred dinars. But tradition, through Abbasside channels,
begins now to take so strong and bitter a tinge of hatred against
the Omeyyad family, that tales regarding it must be received with
caution.
[418] By some authorities he was now sixty-three; but this was
a favourite age with traditionists, being that at which the Prophet
died (supra, p. 119). He was born before the ‘Sacrilegious War,’
which lasted ten years, a.d. 580–590 (Life of Mahomet, p. 14); but
his birth was probably at the end of the last great battle, which
terminated that war. This would make him twenty-six at his
conversion, and fifty-five at his death. If born at the
commencement of the war, he would now be ten years older. The
true date may lie between the two extremes; and it is not unlikely
that he was near sixty years of age at his death.
[419] Moghîra, when recently appointed to Kûfa, may have left
him at Medîna; or, more likely, he may have accompanied his
master from Kûfa to the Hejâz, it being the season of pilgrimage
when the governors presented themselves.
[420] The following story is told even by the earliest
authorities:—Káb (the converted Jewish doctor, of whom mention
has been made already) came to the Caliph and said, ‘Omar, thou
hast but three days to live.’ ‘Strange,’ said Omar, ‘for I feel quite
well and strong.’ ‘Nevertheless,’ continued Káb, ‘thus and thus I
find it foretold in the Towrât.’ Next day he came again, and told
Omar he had but two days left. After he was struck down, Káb
came to visit him, and Omar said, on this occasion, to those about
him,—‘Káb spake the truth,’ adding this couplet—
Káb warned me that in three days I should die; in the

prophecy of Káb there is no doubt;
I fear not death; and verily I am dying; but the fear of the
wolf followeth in its wake.
For wolf (zeib) some read sin (zanb). It is difficult to say what
can have given rise to this strange tradition. Possibly Káb, seeing
the sullen and threatening attitude of Abu Lulû, may have warned
him accordingly.
[421] It is possible that Abd al Rahmân’s subsequent
renunciation of the Caliphate in the coming conclave may have
led to the tradition of this supposed conversation with Omar; but I
give the tradition as I find it; and the facts as stated in the text are
not in themselves improbable.
[422] The selection of Soheib was, no doubt, made advisedly.
It will be remembered that Mahomet is thought to have, in a
manner, pointed out Abu Bekr as his successor by nominating
him, when he was himself laid aside, to preside at the public
prayers. Soheib had, of course, no pretensions to the office. He
had been a slave at Mecca, but was much revered because of his
early conversion (Life of Mahomet, p. 72). So his appointment on
this occasion was very suitable.
[423] A stalwart warrior. Mahomet used to say that in the field,
the voice of Abu Talha was better than a thousand men. At
Honein he slew twenty of the enemy with his own hand.
[424] Some traditions omit the words ‘Jews and Christians,’
giving thus to the sentence a general bearing; but the mention of
covenant or treaties would seem to imply that tribes or people
were meant other than Mahometans; and the best supported
traditions are as in the text.
[425] Backî al Gharcad
[426] There is the tradition of a long conversation between Ibn
Abbâs and Omar, in which the former pressed the right of his
family to the Caliphate; and Omar answered, attributing the claim
to envy. The whole is a mere Abbasside invention; for neither Aly
nor Abbâs, nor any one of the house of Hâshim, seems even to
have dreamed of any such pretension till after the dissensions
which broke out after Omar’s death. Fâtima was the only
discontented person, and that, as we have seen, was about the
property left by the Prophet withheld from her by Abu Bekr, not
about any claim to the Caliphate.
[427] As in the Oriental style, the bed, or matting, was spread
upon the ground, Abdallah had but to raise his father’s head and
remove it outside the pillow; so placing it on the ground, and
afterwards raising it upon his lap.
[428] Some traditions give the date of his death three days
later, i.e. on the last day of Dzul Hijj. This, no doubt, arises from
that having been the date on which the new Caliph was chosen,
and Omar’s reign is conventionally spoken of as also lasting up to
that day—the last day of the year a.h. 23. There is another
tradition that he was wounded on Wednesday, 23rd of Dzul Hijj,
and buried on the Sunday following, i.e. on the 27th.
[429] Bilâl used to say that the only way to soothe Omar, when
in a rage, was to recite in his hearing passages from the Corân,
which invariably assuaged his wrath. This may, perhaps, have
reference to the period of his conversion, when having struck his
sister, and made blood to flow, he was moved to repentance by
the reading of a Sura. (See Life of Mahomet, p. 96.)
[430] Such were Abd al Rahmân, Zobeir, Othmân, Aly, and
Talha. The tradition as given by the Secretary of Wackîdy (fol.
235) may also mean that he was unwilling to sully their name by
subjecting them to the sordid surroundings and associations of
provincial government.
[431] Thus, for example, while journeying in Arabia in the year
of famine, he came upon a poor woman, seated, with her hungry
and weeping children, round a fire, whereon was an empty pot.
Omar ran on to the next village, procured bread and meat, filled
the pot, and cooked an ample meal; leaving the little ones
laughing and at play.
[432] When some one proposed his son Abdallah, Omar was
angry and declared that the government had been long enough in
his family. ‘Besides’ (alluding apparently to some scandal in his
domestic life) ‘how could I appoint a man who was so weak as not
to divorce his wife?’ They say, also, that Omar once praised
Sâlim, the freedman of Hodzeifa, slain at Yemâma, as one who
would have been fit for the Caliphate—‘a man beloved of the
Prophet, and a lover of the Lord.’ But this could only have been
as a mere figure of speech.
[433] Others say that the conclave was held in the house of
Miswar, a citizen of Medîna; and that there Abd al Rahmân spent
the last decisive night in separate conference with Aly and then
with Othmân. For Micdâd, see Life of Mahomet, p. 239. Moghîra
and Amru are characteristically said to have sat at the door of the
house to make it appear as if they, too, had had a hand in the
election. Amru had probably come to Medîna with the other
governors on pilgrimage.
[434] For the two rival families see Life of Mahomet, pp. xx.
and xxviii. The Electors were, in reality, selected very evenly.
Zobeir was cousin to Aly both on the father’s side and the
mother’s. Sád and Abd al Rahmân belonged to the Beni Zohra, a
distant branch of Coreishite descent. Sád, however, was likewise
the nephew of Mahomet’s mother, Amina. Some say that he voted
for Othmân; others that, being pressed by Aly, he went over to his
side. Talha was of the Beni Taym, the clan of Abu Bekr. The
impartiality of Abd al Rahmân is impugned by the partisans of Aly,
as being the brother-in-law of Othmân, whose uterine sister he
married; and this probably was the relationship hinted at by Aly in
his appeal to Abd al Rahmân.
We are getting now into the full flood of Abbasside tradition,
which becomes entirely partisan and untrustworthy, with the view
of exalting the claims of the Prophet’s family and defaming the
Omeyyads. Of this class of traditions is the following:—Aly
complained to Abbâs that he was sure to be outvoted in the
conclave because Sád would go with his kinsman Abd al
Rahmân, and vote for Othmân, brother-in-law of the latter; and
that then, the votes being equally divided, Abd al Rahmân would
have the casting-vote. On this Abbâs reproached Aly for having
neglected the advice, given by him now and on former occasions,
to claim the Caliphate as his right, and to have nothing to do with
electors or arbitration. He had told him years before to demand
the Caliphate from Mahomet, and he had neglected to do so. ‘And
now,’ said Abbâs, ‘the Caliphate will leave our family for ever.’ All
this is patent fabrication.
[435] The Beni Makhzûm was a powerful branch of the
Coreish, but far removed by descent from the clan of Hâshim, and
having little sympathy with it. It was Khâlid’s tribe. To understand
the taunts here bandied, it must be remembered that Abu Sarh
(his proper name is Abdallah Ibn Abu Sarh) was the foster-brother
of Othmân, and bore a bad repute (as we shall see below) as
having deceived Mahomet, and been proscribed at the capture of
Mecca. Ammâr (as has been stated before) was son of a bond-
woman called Sommeyya. See on the tradition of her martyrdom,
Life of Mahomet (1st ed.), vol. ii. p. 126.
[436] The inaugural address was delivered on the 3rd
Moharram or Nov. 10, the interval between the election and
speech at installation being presumably taken up in receiving the
oath of allegiance from all present at Medîna.
[437] Quoted from the Corân, Sura xii. v. 19.
[438] His attitude in discharging the invidious task was that of
a loyal and unselfish patriot. He disclaimed the Caliphate for
himself. Night and day engaged unceasingly in canvassing the
sentiments of the leading chiefs, he did his best to compose the
antagonistic claims of the selfish Electors. What was the
immediate cause of his action when in the Mosque he nominated
Othmân, it is not possible to say. Abbasside traditions assume
that the cause was the conscientious scruples of Aly in hesitating
to swear that he would follow strictly the precedents of Abu Bekr
and of Omar in his conduct of the Caliphate. The Corân and the
precedent of Mahomet he would implicitly obey, but the precedent
of the first Caliphs only so far as he agreed in the same. In the
tenor of the traditions relating how Abd al Rahmân first
questioned Aly and then Othmân, and in their replies, I hardly find
sufficient ground for this assumption; and it looks very much of a
piece with the Abbasside fabrications of the day. One tradition
ascribes the hesitancy of Aly to the cunning counsel of Amru,
who, beforehand, advised him not to give a direct reply, lest Abd
al Rahmân should think him too grasping; while he advised
Othmân to answer unconditionally—as if Aly were so simple as to
have been caught by such transparent guile.
[439] Aly, however, maintained his view, and sought, when he
became Caliph, to give practical effect to it. He searched for
Obeidallah, and would, we are told, have put him to death. But
Obeidallah made his escape to Syria, where he was safe under
the rule of Muâvia.
[440] From this point begin the rough waters of the great
cataclysm. Tradition becomes deeply affected by faction,
especially the envenomed shafts of the party of Aly and the
Abbassides, under cover of which they built up their pretensions,
and, in the end, succeeded in supplanting the Omeyyad dynasty.
The evidence, therefore, must be received with caution as we go
along.
[441] Kabul is said to have been first attacked a.h. 24. The
early Moslems seem to have been as unfortunate (perhaps as
unwise) as ourselves in their expeditions against Afghanistan,
where they met with many sad reverses.
[442] Ascalon is said to have been reduced (apparently for the
first time) just before Omar’s death, A.H. 23; but the delay was
purely owing to its maritime position. This excepted, Syria had for
some years been under the firm yoke of Islam.
[443] For his full name (Abdallah ibn Sád ibn Abu Sarh), see
note at p. 290; but it may conveniently be abbreviated into Abu
Sarh.
[444] Party spirit has, no doubt, been freely used to magnify
the offence of Abu Sarh. He is supposed to be the person alluded
to in Sura vi. 94:—‘Who is more wicked than he who saith, I will
produce a Revelation, like unto that which the Lord hath sent
down?’ Vide Sale’s note in loco. The circumstances as quoted
there are altogether apocryphal. He must, however, have
deceived, if not betrayed, Mahomet, in some very marked way, to
have led to his proscription on the capture of Mecca—an
occasion on which the Prophet treated the inhabitants, with but
few exceptions, with mercy and even generosity. See Life, p. 425.
We have seen above (p. 248) that Omar is said by some to have
been dissatisfied with Amru’s administration in Egypt—so much
so, as to have superseded him partially by appointing Abu Sarh to
the command in Upper Egypt. The evidence of Omar’s
disapproval of Amru is imperfect, but there is no doubt that he
appointed Abu Sarh to Egypt, and that Othmân on his accession
found him already in power there.

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Fundamentals of Inorganic Chemistry

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Triad of atoms Mean of first and last element

5. Lothar Meyer’s Volume Curves

6.(a) Mendeleef’s Periodic Table

nn 2, 8, 18 and 32 are called magic numbers.

(b) Merits of Mendeleef’s Periodic Table

kept in the same group.

(c) Defects of Mendeleef’s Periodic Table

Modern Periodic Law and Modern Periodic Table

Modern Periodic Table

Periods Stable electronic configuration Number of electrons From To

Electronic Basis for the Periodic Classification

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Nomenclature of Elements with Atomic Numbers > 100

Table 1.3 Nomenclature of Elements with Atomic Number Above 100

The types of elements

(b) Inner shells are complete.

(iv)Inner Transition Elements

Group I II III IV V VI VII

The Screening Effect or Shielding Effect

For ns or np orbital electrons

Effective Atomic Number

Van der waal’s radius or collision radius

Van der Waal’s radius > metallic radius> covalent radius

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Na Na+ Cl Cl– Fe2+ Fe3+

Atom or Ion Atomic number z No. of electrons e z/e ratio Size in A

H+ and Cs+ are the smallest and largest cations respectively.

Periodicity in atomic radius and ionic radius

(a) From left to right in a period

Cause of lanthanide contraction

Factors affecting ionization potential

Periodic trends in ionization potential

Ionization Potential of Transition Elements

Ionization Potential of Inner Transition Elements

group varies as Ti > Zr < Hf.

Applications of ionization potential

Hence, the correct order of atomic size is.

87 88 103 104 105 106 107 108 109

Fig. 1.4 Electron affinities of the elements, kJ/mol

O–(g) + e– + 708 kJ → O2–(g)

O(g) + e– → O–(g) + 141 kJ

Electrovalent or covalent—the concept of electronegativity

electronegativities of the atoms increase in the order X < Y < Z.

‘An insect floating on a splinter; if the splinter break, the insect

I thought of Leila, but the heavens are between us;

[412] Many stories are told of Omar’s stern punishment of

Káb warned me that in three days I should die; in the

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