TRANSISTORS

Construction and Theory of Operation

The bi-polar or junction transistor consists of two P-N junctions in the same
crystal. If two P-N junctions were fused together so that the two 'N' regions form a
very thin (0.1 to 1mm thick) lightly doped layer between the two more heavily
doped 'P' regions a P N P transistor is formed. Figure 1 shows the layout of the
transistor and its symbol. Note the electrodes are called COLLECTOR, BASE and
EMITTER (emitter - the one with the arrow in the symbol). The emitter is more
heavily doped than the collector.

Similarly if two heavily doped 'N' regions are separated by a very thin lightly doped
'P' region then an N P N transistor is formed. Figure 2 shows the layout and its
symbol. The emitter is again more heavily doped than the collector.

Note. For both the PNP and NPN transistors the arrows show the direction of
conventional current flow.
Action of NPN Transistor

For transistor action to occur the BASE-EMITTER junction must be forward

biased (POSITIVE to T', NEGATIVE to 'N') and the COLLECTOR-BASE junction
must be reverse biased (POSITIVE to 'N', NEGATIVE to 'P').

It should be noted that the battery Ee is much smaller than the battery Ec, it must
also be of sufficient voltage to overcome the barrier potential of 0.6v for silicon.

Under the influence of the electric field due to battery Ee electrons cross the
junction into the base. Only a small proportion (about 1 to 2%) of the electrons
combine with holes in the base due to it being very thin and lightly doped. Most
of the electrons (98 to 99%), under the very strong positive influence of the battery
EC, are swept through the base to the collector to Ec to form the collector current
in the external circuit.

Electrons are the majority carriers in the N P N transistor.

The small amount of electron-hole combination in the base gives it a momentary

negative charge, which is immediately corrected by battery Ee supply holes, or can
be considered as electron flow. Remember conventional current flow is in the
opposite direction.

So transistor action is the controlling of a large current in the high resistance

(reverse biased) collector-base junction by a small current through the low
resistance (forward biased) base-emitter junction.
Action of P N P Transistor

Again the base-emitter junction is forward biased and the collector-base junction
is reverse biased.

Under the influence of the electric field due to battery Ee, holes cross the junction
into the base. Only 1 to 2% of holes recombine with free electrons in the base due
to it being very thin and lightly doped. The majority of the holes 98 to 99% are
accelerated towards the very strong negative influence of battery Ec. Holes are the
majority carriers in the P N P transistor.

Due to recombination of holes and electrons in the base, the base loses free
electrons and will therefore exhibit a positive charge. The electrons will be
attracted by battery Ee into the base to 'make-up' for those lost by recombining
with holes. Figure 6 shows the conventional current flow through the transistor.
Since the carriers in the N P N and P N P transistors originate at the emitter and
distribute themselves between base and collector, the sum of the base and
collector currents must always be equal to the emitter current, therefore:

Ie = Ic + Ib

The transistor can be used as an AMPLIFIER circuit and also as a SWITCH. The
amplifier action is based on applying a low current to the base-emitter with a
higher current flowing through the collector-emitter.

•The switching action is the effect of applying a small current to the base for the
unit (NPN) to 'switch on' allowing current to flow between the collector-emitter.
Removing the base-emitter current will cause the unit to switch off. These
switching times can be very fast (say 2ns or 2 x 1O9 seconds or 0.000 000 002
seconds) (ns = nano seconds). Fast switching times are needed in computing.
Testing Transistors

Using an analogue multimeter switched to the ohms range. On most analogue

multimeters on the ohms range the negative (-) terminal has a positive polarity
and the positive terminal (+) has a negative polarity. This is an important point
with regards to identifying N P N and P N P transistors. If a digital multimeter is
used then check the polarities of the terminals on the ohms range.

Figure 8 shows the readings you would expect using an analogue multimeter.

LINEAR circuits are amplifying-type circuits. They will have analogue inputs and
the output will vary continuously and be more or less an exact but amplified copy
of the input, ie the output is a linear representation of the input. Many class A -
transistor amplifiers, eg audio frequency and radio frequency amplifiers, are linear
circuits.

TRANSISTOR AS AN AMPLIFIER

First of all we need to look at how the bias is applied in a practical circuit. In our
previous discussions batteries were used for the bias.
If dc only is applied to the circuit shown figure 10 then Ri and R2 will divide the
supply voltage into the same ratio as that of the resistors. So if the resistor values
were 80kQ and 20kQ then with a supply voltage of lOv the voltages across RI and
R2 would be 8v and 2v respectively.

The voltage across must be 0.6V to overcome the barrier potential. This could be
achieved by removing RE and making R2 of such a value so that 0.6V is dropped
across it, however, the problem here would be Ra would have to be quite low and
the amplification would be restricted.

The voltage across the base emitter junction (VBE) must be 0.6V and is the
difference between the voltage across R2 and RE. VBE = VR2 - VRE-

So RE must be of a value that when the standing dc current is flowing 1.4v will be
dropped across RE leaving VBE to be 0.6v.

So in the static condition, ie dc only applied, a standing current (quiescent

current) flows through the circuit and TR1, Ri, R2 and RE provide the bias
necessary to operate TR1 and allow current to flow.
With current flow through RL and TR1 there will be a voltage drop across RL. Let
us assume this voltage drop is 5v so that the standing voltage is 10-5 = 5v.

This is the condition that when dc is applied to the amplifier, all bias voltages are
applied and a standing voltage is at the collector of TR1.

We now need to look at applying a signal to the amplifier. This will be a small ac
signal (which may be superimposed on a dc level), so only ac must be applied to
the amplifier.

Capacitor Ci will block any dc component, and also the output amplified ac value
must only be passed onto the next stage if again C2 blocks a dc component. These
capacitors are known as COUPLING CAPACITORS.

It is also essential that the voltage across RE remains constant, and therefore VBE
remains constant so that the ac input signal adds to and subtracts from the
steady VBE bias.
To ensure this, a capacitor is connected across RE. This capacitor will have a
capacitive reactance at the operating frequency very much lower than RE. This
means that if the ac "bypasses" RE it will leave a steady dc across RE. This
capacitor Ca is known as a DECOUPLING CAPACITOR.

Please note the figures quoted are purely explanatory, and actual values will
depend on the individual circuits. Also, the transistor used is an N P N but
everything applies equally as well when using a P N P transistor except the
positive rail would be at the bottom.

Action With an ac Signal

Assume that with dc applied the voltage at the collector is 5V. If a 2.5mV signal is
applied as the input then when the ac signal goes positive it will add to the dc
bias. The transistor will switch on more and the current through the transistor
will increase and the voltage drop across Ruwill increase, so the collector voltage
will fall. Assume if falls to by 0.25V.

When the ac voltage goes negative, it opposes the bias and the transistor conducts
less, the current through RL is less so the volts drop is less and the collector
voltage rises.
Please note again the values used are for explanatory purposes only.

Also note the function of RL (load resistor) without it there would be no voltage
changes at the collector and no amplification.

Another purpose, (probably its more well known one) for RE, the resistor in the
emitter lead, is as a temperature compensating resistor.

If the temperature increases, the resistance of the transistor decreases, this

causes greater current through the transistor and therefore a greater voltage drop
across RE. If you remember the voltage across the base-emitter junction is VR2-Vbe
and this will decrease thus reducing the forward bias, reducing the current,
compensating for the original increase.

So it is a current amplifier as well as a voltage amplifier.

If there is a current gain and voltage gain then there must be a power gain Power
out typically several thousands.
Power In

Also note the phase relationship between the input and the output is 180°.

The COMMON EMITTER amplifier is used for the majority of amplifier

applications.

There are two other amplifier configurations, the COMMON BASE and the
COMMON COLLECTOR.
 Common Base Amplifier

With reference to figure 16. If the input goes positive then the emitter is positive to
the base and this reduces the bias voltage and the current through the transistor
falls. The volts drop across RL falls and the voltage at the collector rises. When
the input goes negative the emitter is negative with respect to the base and the
bias increases, the current increases and the volts drop across RL will increase
and the collector voltage falls.

Other characteristics of the common base amplifier are:

Current Gain (le/Ic) less than 1, typically 0.98

Voltage Gain typically 500 - 800
Power Gain ' medium compared to common emitter
Input impedance low typically 50Q to 200Q
Output impedance high typically lOOkQ to 1MQ

Input and Output signals are in phase. Because of their very low input
impedance and high output impedance they are used as impedance matching
devices.

Common Collector Amplifier (Emitter Follower)

When the input goes positive this will increase the bias, the transistor will
conduct more and the volts drop across RE will increase and the top of RE will
go more positive. When the signal goes negative the bias will decrease, the
transistor will conduct less the voltage across RE will decrease and the top of RE
goes more negative.
The input and output signals are in phase. Because of its high input impedance
and low output impedance it again is used for impedance matching.

Figure 18 shows the comparison between the three amplifiers.

Each amplifier has the word common in front. This means that the input and
output signals are common to whichever electrode is stated.

COMMON EMMITTER INPUT BETWEEN BASE & EMITTER

OUTPUT BETWEEN COLLECTOR & EMITTER

COMMON BASE INPUT BETWEEN EMITTER & BASE

OUTPUT BETWEEN COLLECTOR & BASE

COMMON COLLECTOR INPUT BETWEEN BASE & COLLECTOR

(EMITTER FOLLOWER) OUTPUT BETWEEN EMITTER & COLLECTOR

If you have difficulty

Identify SIGNAL IN identify SIGNAL OUT
In many cases the amplifications of a single stage amplifier is insufficient and
several stages have to be used. If this is so the output of one stage is the input to
the next, ie they are connected in cascade.
Figure 19 shows a resistor (R3) and a capacitor (Cz) coupled two stage common
emitter amplifier.

Another method of coupling stages of an amplifier is by using transformers. Using

the correct turns ratio the high output impedance of stage 1 can be matched to
the low input impedance of stage 2, thus giving a considerable increase in gain
over RC coupled stages. However, due to the change in impedance with
frequency, its frequency response is poor compared with the RC coupled amplifier.
The uneven response, shown in figure 20, causes distortion.

However, they are often used between the output stage and a loudspeaker load.
(High to low impedance matching).
If the gain of stage 1 is 5 and the gain of stage 2 is 20 then the overall gain is 100
(5 x 20). The overall gain is the product of the individual gains.

DIRECTLY-COUPLED AMPLIFIERS

Coupling amplifier stages to one another via capacitors or transformers makes it

easy to couple together points with differing dc voltage levels. However, this form
of amplifier will only amplify an alternating signal, completely ignoring dc voltages
and will respond poorly to signals of very low frequencies.

Many control systems found in aircraft produce signals that vary only infrequently
and this makes it necessary to use directly-coupled amplifiers in order to amplify ^
those variations. Careful matching of transistors and associated components is
essential if these amplifiers are to perform correctly. They are particularly
sensitive to voltage and temperature variations.

Simple Direct Coupling of two Bi-polar Transistor Amplifiers

The emitter bias resistor in TR2's circuit (R) produces a series current negative
feedback, reducing the overall gain of the amplifier to a minimum. Figure 22.
Direct Coupling with Zener Diode Bias

A Zener diode in the emitter circuit of TR2 (figure 23) maintains a constant voltage
at the emitter and thus increases the overall gain of the amplifier. It also goes
some way towards decreasing the effects of any variation in supply voltage.

DIFFERENTIALLY CONNECTED AMPLIFIERS

If two identical directly-coupled amplifiers have the same power source, then a
change in supply voltage will not cause a change in the difference of their outputs.
There is similarly no change in the difference of their outputs if the ambient
temperature changes.
The only thing that will produce a change in the difference at their output is a
variation in their signal inputs.

The 'Long-Tailed Pair' Differential Amplifier

Figure 24 shows the arrangement of the long tailed pair'. Note the output is
across the collectors of the two transistors, and that they have a common emitter
via a resister (R).

The Darlington Pair

This arrangement (figure 25) gives a high current gain. It can also be used in the
Common Collector or Emitter Follower configuration with currents in the order of
milliamps, in which case its main benefit is the increase in input impedance due
to the reduction of current taken by the first transistor.
Classes of Amplification

When a transistor is used as an amplifier the input circuit is normally biased to

some particular working point. There axe three basic classes of bias, named
according to the working point chosen.

Class A

The amplitude of the input signal and bias are such that there is an output
current for the full cycle of the input signal. This is the most commonly used
class of bias in amplifier circuits.

Class B

The bias is such that current flows for only half of the cycle of input signal, for the
other half of the input cycle the transistor is "cut off. This is usually employed in
power amplifiers.

Class C

The bias and amplitude of input signal are such that current flows for less than
half of each cycle. Used in oscillators and selective amplifiers.

An amplifier which produces low power output has an efficiency which is no

greater than 50%. This is because it is working under Class A conditions and the
dc standing (no input) current is large and produces wasted dc power.

To overcome this problem in power amplifiers the push-pull amplifier was

introduced.
Push-Pull Amplifier

Figure 27 shows a simple push-pull power amplifier using an N P N type and

P N P type transistors. The load is a loudspeaker and is connected to both
emitters via a dc blocking capacitor.
Operation
When an input is applied, assuming at this moment in time that the input at A is
positive to B (positive half cycle), the base emitter junction of TRi is forward
biased. There is therefore an output to the loudspeaker (positive half cycles).
During this time TR2 is reverse biased (base negative with respect to emitter).

Negative half cycles of the input (E positive to A) will reverse bias TRi and it will
cut off and forward bias TR2, this time there is again an output; this time on the
negative half cycles.
As each transistor conducts for one half of each complete input cycle, the
amplifier is working in Class B conditions.
When there is no input, neither transistor conducts, therefore no dc power is
wasted. The maximum efficiency of a Class B power amplifier is high (78%) when
compared with a Class A amplifier (50%).
One disadvantage of the simple circuit is that each transistor does not turn on
until the input is about 0.6V. As a result there is a dead zone producing 'cross-
over' distortion (see figure 28).
This is overcome by forward biasing the base-emitter junctions of both
transistors. Figure 29 shows a push-pull amplifier with this biasing to the two
transistors being provided by resistors Ri, R2 and R3 via the secondary winding of
transformer Tl.
The changing currents in the primary of T2 results in an output which is an
amplification of each half of the input signal.
This is then operating in Class AB conditions, being a compromise between the
low distortion, low efficiency Class A amplifier and the higher efficiency, higher
distortion Class B amplifier.

MULTIVIBRATORS
These are transistor switching circuits of two stages with the output of one stage
being fed back to the input of the other by coupling resistors or capacitors. The
output of one is 'high' the other is low' and this occurs alternatively producing a
square wave output. There are three basic types:
1. Astable or free running multivibrator
2. Bistable or flip-flop
3. Monostable or 'one shot'
Figure 30 shows the basic circuit of a Bistable Multivibrator.

Operation
When the dc supply is switched on then, because of the slight differences in
manufacture, one transistor will conduct more than the other. This causes say,
TRi to switch fully on while TR2 switches off.
At this point TRi collector voltage is low (high voltage drop across Ra), there is
therefore insufficient voltage to drive current through Ri to the base of TR2. TR2
remains off and its collector voltage being high there is current flow through R2 to
maintain TRi switched on. The output at Q is high (logic state 1) and the output
at Q is low (logic state 0).
When TRi conducts, its collector voltage falls to a low value and since capacitor Ci
cannot change its charge instantaneously there is no change of capacitor voltage
during the rise of conduction of TRi.

Therefore the fall of collector voltage at TRi causes TRa base to fall by the same
amount causing TRa to cut off, causing TRa collector voltage to rise.

This multivibrator produces a continuous stream of almost square wave pulses, ie

it is a square wave oscillator. It requires no input trigger and is
sometimes called a relaxation oscillator.

It is extensively used for producing timing (clock) pulses for digital systems.
Remember, everything in computing works in synchronisation with a (very fast)
electronic clock.

MONOSTABLE VIBRATOR

Figure 32 refers. Again, when the supply is switched on the circuit settles into the
state TRi OFF and TR2 ON, therefore Q = O.

A positive trigger pulse, represented by the switch in the diagram will switch TRi
ON, Ci right hand plate falls rapidly switching off TRa making the output Q go
high. Now the capacitor charges up through RI making the right hand plate go
low TRa is switched on again and the Q output goes low.

This multivibrator has one stable state and one unstable state. It can be switched
into its unstable state for a certain time (determined by the values of C and R) and .
then returns to its stable state. It can be used to create a pulse of known timing
to act as a delay circuit in digital systems.
The Multivibrators we have seen are using junction transistors, however, they can
be constructed using Field Effect Transistors (FET's) logic gates and operational
amplifiers (to be discussed later).

FLIP-FLOPS
The JK Flip-Flop

Figure 32 shows the JK flip-flop. Study it for a few minutes and note the layout of
the system including the inputs at J and K.

Operation

Suppose that TR4 is conducting and that TR3 is cut off. Q is at logic 0. If logic 1
is applied to J and logic 0 to K, there would be no effect because there would be
no change to the diodes Dl and D2. A falling (1-0) signal at T will cause the
transistors to change over in the usual way, so Q now goes to logic 1. However, a
further falling pulse at T will have no effect on the circuit if J is still at logic 1. It
follows, therefore, that a trigger pulse at T will only change the state if the logic
levels at J and K are reversed. From this it can be seen that A TRIGGER PULSE
AT T' WILL ONLY CHANGE THE STATE IF THE LOGIC LEVELS AT 'J' AND 'Q'
ARE DIFFERENT. It also follows that a Logic 0 or a Logic 1 can be stored at J
until a trigger pulse arrives at T, when it will be released at Q.
R S FLIP FLOP

Operation

With reference to figure 34 (circuit and symbol). When power is applied, current-
biasing will be applied to each transistor base-emitter by way of R2-R4 to Tl and
R1-R3 to T2. Although the two 'sides' are identical, mis-matching will mean that
one transistor will start to conduct before the other. If silicon transistors are
being used, 0.6 volts is needed across the base-emitter for switching ON.
 FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTORS

There are two basic types of Field Effect Transistors (FET's). A Junction Gate FET
(JUGFET) and a Metal Oxide Semiconductor FET (MOSFET)

JUGFET

With reference to figure 35. The bar of N-type material provides the medium
through which the majority carriers (electrons) pass. In doing so, they have to
pass between the two sections of P-type material, known as the Gate. The two P-
type sections are usually connected together electrically (so are at the same
potential) and are used as the Control electrode. Current enters at the SOURCE
electrode and leaves at the DRAIN electrode.

As in any semiconductor device containing P-N junctions, depletion zones exist at

these junctions. In this device, the P-type gate sections are more heavily doped
than the N-type channel. This results in the depletion zone extending further into
the channel than it does into the gate.
Note: The opposite arrangement of a P-type channel and N-type gate is also
available.

Operation

With reference to figure 37. The Drain-Source voltage VDs sets up a current flow of
majority carriers through the channel. The Gate-Source voltage VGS reverse-
biases the gate-channel junction, thus increasing the width of the depletion
zones. As can be seen in the diagram, these zones are not uniform in shape. This
is because the potential gradient between drain and source produces a greater
potential difference between the gate and the channel towards the drain than it
does towards the source. Thus we have characteristic 'wedge' shaped depletion
zones.

Since no majority carriers exist in the depletion zones, the width of the channel
through which they can flow is dependent on the size of these zones and hence on
the value of VGS- It is in this way that VGS controls the current flow. Under
normal operating conditions, the gate-channel junction is reverse-biased so that
only a very small leakage current flows in the gate-source circuit. It has,
therefore, got a very high input impedance.

Uses

The JUGFET can be used as an amplifier or a switch and the next diagram shows
it connected as an amplifier. Its input resistance is very high compared with that
of a transistor (1 x 1010Q compared to 1 to 5kQ for a transistor). Its output
impedance is 50kQ tolMQ compared to a transistors output impedance of 10-
50kQ.
MOSFET

Also called an Insulated Gate Field Effect Transistor - IGFET. The basic
construction of an n-channel MOSFET and symbol is shown in figure 39.

The main difference between this device and the JUGFET is that there is no direct
electrical connection between the gate terminal and the semiconductor material.
Instead they are insulated from one another by a very thin layer of highly
insulative silicon oxide.
The voltage between the gate and the source (Yes) controls the electron
concentration in the channel. If the drain (D) is made positive to the Source (S)
and VGS is zero a current will flow. If VGS is made negative, positive holes are
attracted into the channel so reducing the number of free electrons in the channel
and therefore channel current decreases. This is known as the DEPLETION
MODE. If VGS is positive, electrons are attracted into the channel from the P
substrate increasing current flow - this is known as the ENHANCEMENT MODE.
If a P-channel FET (figure 41) was used in the enhancement mode, the conduction
is by holes.

The MOSFET has a higher input impedance than the JUGFET > 1 x!012Q,
however its output impedance is similar to that of a bi-polar transistor 10 to
50kQ. When used as a switch its switching time is very fast.

MOSFET structure is very compact and is widely used in integrated circuits.

Great care has to be taken to protect MOSFETS from electrostatic charges, which
could break down the insulated oxide layer. They are supplied with a metal clip
short circuiting the leads, which should be left in place until connected in the
circuit.
CMOS (Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor)

This is one of the most important families of logic gates which uses a
P-channel and an N-channel MOSFET to create all the relevant logic gates. An
example of an inverter gate is shown in figure 43. The great advantage of CMOS is
that in both the HIGH and LOW states the current consumption is very small (1 x
1O9A). Power consumption is therefore low and the fan out is high (typically 50).
The speed of operation is poorer than TTL.

FEEDBACK IN AMPLIFIERS

Feedback is the return of a portion of the output signal of an amplifier back into
the input signal of the same system. There are many variations on this but the
following deals with the broader principles.
There are generally two types of feedback - which, incidentally, occurs in all forms
of control systems whether mechanical, electrical, electronic etc, these are Positive
Feedback and Negative feedback.

Positive Feedback

When the returned portion of the output signal assists the input signal, it is
called Positive Feedback. This causes an increase in the overall gain. It can be
many times larger than the gain without feedback, but can also lead to instability
and oscillation.

It can be seen that, if /JA equals unity, the gain is infinite and oscillation
occurs.

Negative Feedback

When the returned portion of the output signal opposes or tries to cancel the input
signal, it is called Negative Feedback. This is the most common form of feedback
(in all control systems), having several advantages and uses.

The Gain of an amplifier with Negative feedback is given by:

Negative Feedback is used to:

a) Improve the stability of the gain. It is less affected by changes in

transistor parameters and temperature changes.

b) Effectively change the input and output impedances.

c) Reduce 'noise' and distortion.

d) Increase bandwidth, (see below)

Frequency Response and Bandwidth

The GAIN of an electronic amplifier is determined by such things as the type of

amplifying device being used and by its associated circuit components. Any
particular circuit arrangement will provide maximum gain at a single frequency
(or over a narrow band of frequencies) and less gain at all other frequencies.
Since many amplifiers are required to provide amplification over a wide range of
frequencies it is common practice to provide each amplifier with a graph showing
how its gain varies with frequency. This is known as the amplifier's Frequency
Response Curve. Figure 45 shows an example.

The Effects of Negative Feedback on Bandwidth

An amplifier's Gain is generally considered to be adequate as long

as it is equal to, or greater than, half the Maximum Power Gain.

(OR)

An amplifier's Gain is generally considered to be adequate as long as

it is equal to, or greater than, 0.707 of the Maximum Voltage Gain

The range of frequencies over which this requirement is satisfied is known as the
amplifier's BANDWIDTH.
As stated above, negative feedback has the effect of reducing the gain of an
amplifier but it also has the very valuable effect of increasing its bandwidth.
Figure 45 shows graphs of an amplifier's gain and associated bandwidth, both
with and without negative feedback.

OSCILLATORS

With reference to figure 46 assume the capacitor is charged from an external

supply.

When the switch is closed the capacitor will discharge, thus changing magnetic
field causes an induced voltage into the coil, the back emf opposes this discharge
and this therefore takes some time. Eventually the capacitor discharges and its
electrical energy has been transferred to the coil. At this time the magnetic field
begins to collapse, current now flows to charge up the capacitor, lower plate +ve.

Once charged the capacitor discharges in the opposite sense creating a magnetic
field of opposite polarity.

This oscillation would continue indefinitely if the circuit had no resistance, but
the coil has resistance, so the oscillations gradually decrease. To maintain the
oscillation some energy must be continuously fed into the LC circuit. Most
oscillators are amplifiers with positive feedback which means the feedback is in
phase with the input and makes good the energy losses in the oscillatory circuit.

Radio Frequency Oscillators

With reference to figure 47, the basic operation of this circuit is as follows.
Switching on the power supply charges up the capacitor and starts the
oscillations. Feedback is obtained by the changing magnetic field in LI inducing
an emf into L2. Thus emf is applied between the base and emitter, which causes
more collector current and therefore more current in LI, this continues until
oscillation is maintained.

The feedback from L2 being enough to draw dc from the supply to make good the
energy losses and keep the oscillation going. So the oscillator converts dc to ac.

For very high frequency stability crystal oscillators are used in the range 1 to 10
MHz.

Audio frequency oscillators using resistors and capacitors are used up to

50 MHz.

You have already seen the commonest square wave type oscillator, that is the
Astable Multivibrator.

THE TRANSISTOR AS A SWITCH

The transistor has no moving parts and can switch at very high speeds.

In switching applications the transistor is treated as a two state device, ie the

transistor is either fully conducting or cut-off.

In figure 48, when the input voltage reverse biases the base-emitter junction and
the transistor is cut-off and acts as an open switch. If the input voltage switches
to a large forward bias the transistor will conduct and act as a closed switch.
Fast switching is desirable and N-P-N types are preferred because their majority
carriers, which are electrons, travel faster than the majority carriers (holes) in P-
N-P types.

MOSFETS can be used as switches, their switching speed being about ten times
faster than a transistor.

INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

An integrated circuit (1C) is a complete electronic circuit on a chip of silicon about

5mm square and 0.5mm thick.

Figure 49 shows a typical 1C cutaway so you can see the silicon chip and the
leads radiating from it to the pins. The diagram shows a dual in-line package, but
circular packages are available.

ICs are assembled this way to allow their fitment to PCBs (Printed Circuit Boards)
etc. Otherwise they would be too small for handling and connection purposes.
Silicon is the base material used, as it has a high degree of purity and a
continuous regular monocrystalline structure. A silicon wafer (about 10cm in
diameter) is produced onto which hundreds of IC's can be formed. Figure 51
shows how areas of silicon oxide deposited on the silicon are selectively removed.
It is basically a photographic process where areas of the chip are masked and
then the surface is subject to uv light. The unmasked areas are 'eaten' away using
a solvent leaving those areas that are required. Finally the unmasked silicon oxide
area is removed by etching.
Figure 52 shows how a transistor is made using the diffusion process, ie exposing
the wafer at high temperature to the vapour of boron or phosphorus so their
atoms diffuse through the window producing a. 'P' or 'N' type area.
Monolithic integrated circuits are manufactured by an extension of the planar
diffusion process. The active elements (transistors), and the passive elements
(diodes, resistors and capacitors) are all created by modifying the conductive
properties of the silicon.

Integrated diodes are made by forming a P-N junction similar to that previously
described. Integrated resistors are thin layers, the resistance being defined by the
length and width of the layer. Integrated capacitors are made by using the
capacitance of reverse biased P-N junctions.

There are two broad types of 1C

1. Linear (analogue)
2. Digital (logic)

Linear Circuits

Most linear IC's are based on bi-polar transistors but in some cases FET's are
used exclusively or in addition to bi-polar types. The majority of today's linear
integrated circuits use operational amplifiers (op-amps).

OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS

A typical op-amp contains twenty transistors as well as resistors and small

capacitors.

The chief properties of op-amps are:

1. Very high open loop gain

2. High input impedance (1 x 106 to 1 x 1012 Q)
3. Low output impedance (typically 1000Q)
With reference to figure 55, the basic op-amp has one output and two inputs. The
NON-INVERTING (NI) input is marked + and the INVERTING (I) input is marked -.
In the diagram point E is the common reference for the input and output volts.
The dc power supply is typically +5V to + 15V with 0V being the reference level.

With the Nl input grounded (chassis potential), an input at I, causes a voltage of

opposite polarity to appear at the output.
With the I input grounded and an input at N l , causes a voltage of the same
polarity to appear at the output.

When signals are applied to both input terminals the output is the difference
between to the two inputs, ie two identical signals will produce zero output. The
op-amp is basically a differential amplifier.
Although the power supplies positive and negative are shown in the basic
op-amp symbol they are usually omitted on wiring diagrams.

Most op-amps use negative feedback, ie feeding some of the output back to the
inverting input. The coupling between the stages is direct coupling. In practice
even when dc bias conditions are met and no input signal is applied, there may be
a small voltage at the input, called the differential input offset voltage. It may be
caused by different manufacturing tolerances of the components of the op-amp.
This offset voltage produces a voltage at the output (with no input signal
remember) and in certain applications is undesirable. For the 741 op-amp this is
achieved by placing a variable resistor across the offset null pins (1 and 5) and
adjusting it until the output is zero when the input is zero.

In ac operation a coupling capacitor at the output removes any dc component

caused by the offset voltage. Slew rate is the maximum rate of change of large
amplitude output voltages that an op-amp can allow before it behaves non-
linearly, it is measured in volts per micro-second (V//zs).

As previously stated the op-amp is basically a differential amplifier so it is useful

to look at its operation.

The circuit shown produces an output which is proportional to the difference

between the two inputs. If Rs = RF then Vout is equal to the difference in input
voltages. If RF and Rs have different values then the circuit gain (Ao) - RF/RS.

In general the output is

V0 = Ao (V2 - Vi)
Op-amp as an Inverting Amplifier

With reference to figure 59, the input voltage Vi is applied to the inverting
terminal via resistor Ri. The non-inverting input is grounded. Feedback is
applied from the inverting input via R? which because of the inversion of the
amplifier acts as negative feedback. Output is of opposite polarity to input.

Op-amp as a Non-inverting Amplifier

Figure 60 shows a non-inverting op-amp. The input voltage is applied to the non-
inverting input (+) with the inverting input grounded. The feedback resistor is still
connected to the inverting input to obtain negative feedback. Output is the same
polarity as the input.

Op-amp as a Simple Voltage Comparator

With reference to figure 61 the op-amp compares Vi to V re f. When Vi is slightly

greater than Vref the op-amp saturates in one direction and when Vref is greater
than Vi it saturates in the other direction. It is therefore behaving as a two-state
digital device with Vo switching from high to low, ie comparing voltages. When fed
with an ac input the op-amp in its saturated condition is converting a
continuously varying analogue signal into a two-state digital one, ie converting a
sine wave into a square wave.
Op-amp as an Integrator

The circuit shown (figure 62) is similar to an inverting amplifier but feedback is
via a capacitor. It therefore inverts, amplifies the input signal over a period of
time determined by the values of Ri and Ci.

Op-amp as a Differentiator (Figure 63)

This circuit responds only to changes of input Vi. It is only during these input
changes that current flows through Ci and Rf. The output is the inversion of the
input rate of change.
Op-amp as a Voltage Follower (Figure 64)

This is a special case of the non-inverting amplifier in which 100% negative

feedback is applied by connecting the output directly back to the inverting
terminal. This effectively gives a situation where the output voltage follows the
input and almost exactly equals it. It has an extremely high input impedance and
a low output impedance and its main application is for impedance matching, ie to
act as a buffer amplifier.

Other uses of Op-amps

Linear IC's are used in audio amplifiers, radio frequency amplifiers and video
amplifiers, but are of specialised types and require a small number of external
components. Figure 66 shows a radio frequency amplifier.
 LOGIC CIRCUITS
There are two main types of logic circuit:

a) TTL (Transistor Transistor Logic)

b) CMOS (Complimentary Metal Oxide Semiconductor)

The following shows the scales of integration which refer to the number of gates
contained in a single package:

* Small scale integration (SSI) - containing not more than 11 gates

* Medium scale integration (MSI) - containing up to 100 gates
* Large scale integration (LSI) - containing between 100 - 1000 gates
* Very large scale integration (VLSI) - containing over 1000 gates

The following diagrams show some TTL and CMOS gates.

Figure 68 shows a two input NAND gate which uses a multiple emitter N-P-N
transistor. If both inputs to Tl are high, then no current flows from the base to
the emitter. Current does flow through the base collector circuit to switch on T2.
The output F is near zero volts. If either input A or B go low then Tl conducts,
this causes current flow from collector of T2 (positive charges) through Tl to
ground which switches T2 off and the output goes high.
Properties of TTL and CMOS

TTL uses bi-polar transistors along with diodes and transistors formed to
microscopic dimensions on a slice of silicon (chip). TTL must have a steady 5V dc
supply, while CMOS will work on dc voltages between 3 and 15V and usually
requires much less power. CMOS uses uni-polar Field Effect Transistors (FET)
-"with metal-oxide-silicon technology; this lends itself to VLSI as they take up less
room on a chip, compared to the TTL. CMOS has a much higher input
impedance.

One important point with CMOS is that if static electric charges are allowed to
build up on it's input pins, these voltages can break down the thin layer of silicon
oxide insulation between the gate and the other electrodes of MOSFET's and this
will destroy the 1C. So anti-static protection is important.

Gate operating parameters include:

a) Speed of operation
b) Fan in
c) Fan out
d) Noise margin
e) Power dissipation

Speed of operation - the time that elapses between the application of a signal to
an input terminal and the resulting change in the logical state at the output
terminals.

Fan in - number of inputs coming from similar circuits that can be connected to
the gate without adversely affecting its performance.

Fan out - the maximum number of similar circuits that can be connected to it's
output terminals without the output falling outside the limits at which logic levels
1 and 0 are specified.

Noise margin - this is maximum noise voltage (unwanted voltage) that can appear
at it's input terminals without producing a change in output state.

Power dissipation - as in any circuit, supply voltage multiplied by the current

(Power = V x I) gives the power in the circuit and this heat must be dissipated.
If you look back at the diagrams for the TTL AND gate and the TTL NAND gate you
will see that the NAND gate uses fewer components and is therefore
cheaper to produce.

This also applies to the NOR gate, ie it is cheaper to produce than the OR gate.

NAND gates can be connected together to form any of the other basic gates - thus
reducing production costs by manufacturing one gate only. The following
drawings show how these gates can be formed.
Figure 72 shows the pin connections of IC's for different gate configurations.
There is no need to remember them but it does give a good idea of how the chip
(with the gates in) is connected - although the chip itself is so small that it looks
like a piece of silver metal 4 or 5mm square.
IC's are made which also perform the function of encoding, decoding, performing
binary addition (adders) and multiplexers.

In sequential logic circuits flip-flops are extensively used all of which are
manufactured on IC's.
Clocks

In sequential logic circuits where there may be a large number of flip-flops, it is

important they all act at the same time, so no circuit operates out of sequence.

This is achieved by a CLOCK pulse from a high frequency pulse generator. The
circuits may be triggered when the clock pulse changes from 1 to 0 or when it
changes from 0 to 1 (edge triggered) or when the level is 1 or 0. Figures 74 and 75
shows a clocked SR flip-flop and it's truth table.
D Type SR Flip-flop

This is a modified SR flip-flop. The D stands for Delay. If you look at the truth
table, when the clock pulse changes (rises), whatever is at D is transferred to Q,
when clock pulse fails Q stays at that level. NO MATTER WHAT IS APPLIED TO
D, Q will only change state at the next clock pulse. The truth table shows that
the output equals the input one clock pulse earlier, ie the data is held back until
the clock pulse = 1.

JK Flip-flop

Figures 78 and 79 show the layout and truth table of the JK flip-flop using NAND
gates.
The two inputs are called J and K and the operation is described in the truth
table. J = K = 1 is allowed (unlike S = R = 1 in a SR flip-flop) and toggles (changes
state) when this input is applied.

Shift Registers, which store a binary number and shifts it out when required
usually consist of a number of flip-flops and manufactured in IC's as are counters
and memories.

The Astable, Monostable and Bistable multivibrators are also manufactured on

IC's using op-amps as the diagrams below.
PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARDS (PCBs)

In this technique metallic foil is bonded onto a base board made from insulating
material, and a pattern is printed onto the foil and chemical etching on to the foil
forms a series of current conducting paths. The components are then mounted to
the board and soldered to the appropriate points to make-up the circuit required.
The boards are usually made-up of layers of phenolic resin impregnated paper, or
epoxy resin impregnated glass-fibre cloth.

The thickness of the boards depends in the strength and stiffness required. The
boards are manufactured in three basic configurations:
The most commonly used conducting material is copper foil. To bond the copper
to the board, copper foil sheets are cut to the size of the board and steel separate
plates are interposed between the layers as shown in figure 83.

The layered sheets are bonded in a hot press. The heat during the pressing
operation melts the resin in the base material so that it flows and fully wets the
material and the copper foil. As polymerisation of the resin mix proceeds, each
layer of base material reaches the fully cured state with the copper foil is bonded
to it. When cooled each board is trimmed to the required size, inspected and
packed in polythene bags.

Next a master diagram must be produced to show clearly the conductor pattern (a
sort of wiring pattern) required and where the components are to be located. This
is usually done by computer aided design techniques.
The printing process may be by the etching or additive process. In the etching
process the copper foil is cleaned and coated with a photo-sensitive solution
known as a 'resist', this solution has the property of becoming soluble when
exposed to strong light. The master diagram is then placed over the board and
exposed for a time in a printing machine. The resist is washed away to leave the
resist etched away around the circuit pattern. The board is then placed in a bath
of ferric chloride to etch away all the unprotected copper.

An alternative process is the additive method. In this process the copper is

deposited only in the areas where conductors are required. Again the board is
coated with a photo resist solution. A negative of the master diagram is then
screen printed onto the board, exposing the areas for the conductor layout. These
exposed areas are chemically activated and the whole board is immersed in a
copper plating solution, when the required thickness is obtained the board is
withdrawn from the solution.

The components are soldered to the board by two main methods (a) by hand, (b)
mass soldering.
In mass soldering all joints are soldered simultaneously by bringing the board
into contact with an oxide free surface of molten solder, which is contained in a
special bath. The solder specification for mass soldering is 60/40 tin/lead. To
prevent oxidation a flux is used and in the automated mass soldering system a
fluxer unit is incorporated, removal of any flux residue is by solvents.

Flexible printed wiring circuits are available and usually serve as a means of
interconnecting units and are basically copper foil conductors bonded to a base of
thin flexible insulator (polyester, epoxy glass cloth and polyimide) and covered
with the same material.

Printed circuit boards are widely used in components on a modern large transport
aircraft. When removing or replacing these boards strict precautions must be
observed.
The reason for this is that the static electricity or charge that we have in our body
can cause serious damage to the software of the components on the boards. The
table shows typical electrostatic voltages that may be developed.

If we were to touch the edge connectors or some other exposed metal part then a
surge of current due to the difference in potential between our body and the PCB
would cause damage to the components. The following table lists static
sensitive devices and voltages that can cause damage. These devices are often
referred to as ESD's (electrostatic sensitive devices).

To identify components fitted with ESD's a symbol is used on the line replacement
unit (LRU) and associated documentation, transport bags etc.

To overcome the static discharge problem the person removing the PCB must use
a conducting wrist strap which is connected to a convenient grounding point on
the aircraft and the person, to initially discharge any energy within the body.
When removing an ESD PCB (or any PCB for that matter) electrical power is
removed, the wrist strap is connected to the ground (there is usually a convenient
point nearby on the aircraft), attach strap to your wrist and remove the PCB using
the extractors provided. Place the PCB immediately into a special conductive bag
(designed for ESD components) and identify with a label, do NOT use staples or
adhesive tape. Remove wrist strap if not immediately refitting a new PCB. Do not
forget any documentation such as JAA form 1 etc.

If you are removing the complete LRU then it is important you do not touch the
connector pins and place dust caps on all connectors.

REMEMBER STATIC DISCHARGE CAN CAUSE DAMAGE!