Iot Based Transformer Monitoring System.

TRANSFORMER MONITORING
ABSTRACT:
This work describes the design and implementation of a “IOT Based Transformer
Monitoring System”. The aim of this project is to provide an alternative, effective, efficient and
more reliable method of protecting fault from power transformer which may arose as a result
of overload, high temperature, high input voltage and low input voltage and Oil level. This
project is about design and implementation of a mobile embedded system to monitor and record
key parameters of a distribution transformer like load currents, oil level and ambient
temperature. The idea of on-line monitoring system integrates a Wi-Fi Modem, with a standalone
single chip microcontroller and different sensors. It is installed at the distribution transformer site
and the above parameters are recorded using the analog to digital converter (ADC) of the
embedded system. Generally, fault may occur in transformers due to the stated reasons. To
safeguard the damage of the transformer with the aid and help of microcontroller we monitor and
control the entire circuitry. The obtained parameters are processed and recorded in the system
memory. If any abnormality or an emergency situation occurs the system sends notification to
the mobile phones containing the designed IoT application of the system about the abnormality
according to some predefined instructions programmed in the microcontroller. This mobile
system will help the transformers to operate smoothly and identify problems before any
catastrophic failure.
INTRODUCTION
Protection against fault in power systems (PS) is very essential and vital for reliable
performance. A power system is said to be faulty when an undesirable condition occurs in that
power system, where the undesirable condition might be short circuits, over-current, overvoltage
etc. The power transformer is one of the most significant equipment in the electric power system,
and transformer protection is an essential part of the general system protection approach.
Transformers are used in a wide variety of applications, from small distribution transformers
serving one or more users to very large units that are an integral part of the bulk power system.
In power systems, distribution transformer is electrical equipment which distributes

power tothe low-voltage users directly, and its operation condition is an important component of
theentire distribution network operation. Operation of distribution transformer under
ratedcondition( as per specification in their nameplate) guarantees their long life .However,
theirlife is significantly reduced if they are subjected to overloading, resulting in
unexpectedfailures and loss of supply to a large number of customers thus effecting system
reliability. Overloading and ineffective cooling of transformers are the major causes of failure
indistribution transformers
Increase in population leads to increase in demands of electrical power. With the increase
in demand of power, the existing systems may become overloaded. Overloading at the consumer
end appears at the transformer terminals which can affect its efficiency and protection systems.
One of the reported damage or tripping of the distribution transformer is due to thermal
overload. To avoid the damaging of transformer due to overloading from consumer end, it
involves the control against over-current tripping of distribution transformer. Where the
advancement of technology has given the edge to use the latest trends, such as microprocessor.
Microcontrollers are used as one of the requirements to apply in the remote protection of
the transformer. For decades, fuse, circuit breakers and electromechanical relays were used for
the protection of power systems. The traditional protective fuses and electrometrical relays
present several draw backs.
Alternatively, some researches were conducted on relay which can be interfaced to
microprocessors in order to eradicate the drawbacks of the traditional protective techniques,
which led to many improvements in transformer protection in terms of lower installation and
maintenance costs, better reliability, improved protection and control and faster restoration of
outages. In view of the associated problems of traditional methods of protecting transformer, a
proposed solution is chosen to develop a microcontroller based transformer protection prototype
because the microprocessors based relays provides greater flexibility, more adjustable
characteristics, increased range of setting, high accuracy, reduced size, and lower costs, along
with many ancillary functions, such as control logic, event recording, self-monitoring and
checking, etc.
PROBLEM STATEMENT:
The monitoring devices or systems which are presently used for monitoring distribution
transformer exists some problems and deficiencies. Few of them are mentioned below.
(1) Ordinary transformer measurement system generally detects a single transformer

parameter, such as power, current, voltage, and phase. While some ways could detect
multi-parameter, the time of acquisition and operation parameters is too long, and testing
speed is not fast enough.
(2) A monitoring system can only monitor the operation state or guard against steal the
power, and is not able to monitor all useful data of distribution transformers to reduce
costs.
Fault may occur in transformers due to –
 Over Load (High Current)

 Under Voltage (Below 180Volt)
 Over Voltage (Above 270Volt)
 High Temperature
 Frequency
 Oil Level (Below 30%)
NEED OF THE PROJECT:
According to the above requirements, we need two distribution transformers real-time

monitoring system to detect all operating parameters operation, and send to the monitoring center
in time. It leads to online monitoring of key operational parameters of distribution transformers
which can provide useful information about the health of transformers which will help the
utilities to optimally use their transformers and keep the asset in operation for a longer period.
This will help to identify problems before any serious failure which leads to a significant cost
savings and greater reliability
OBJECTIVE OF THE PROJECT:
The main aim of the project is to avoid the damage of the distribution transformer
whenever load is changed or any parameters of the distribution transformers changes for certain
value and also sending this change in information to the respective authority through internet by
using wi-fi modem.
BLOCK DIAGRAM:
BLOCK DIAGRAM DESRIPTION:
The above presented block diagram represents the architecture of the proposed work
“IOT Based Transformer Monitoring System”. The system consists of a microcontroller used to
control the complete circuit action of the circuit. This microcontroller is programmed to perform
the desired operation of the system. Atmega16A microcontroller is used to perform the above
mentioned functions.
The circuit components require power supply for their desired operation. This power
requirement of the circuit is fulfilled by the power supply unit designed in the circuit. This power
supply unit provides regulated 5v and 12v supply as per the requirement of the component.
For the demo purpose we have considered two transformers in this system as shown in
the above architecture of the system. The system consists of two temperature sensors used to
monitor the temperature of each transformer continuously. A LM-35 temperature sensor is used
for the above function. These temperature sensors are interfaced with the microcontroller and
provide the data to it. Gives the output in degree Celsius calibrated in the program.
The system also consists of two oil level detectors for the measurement of the level of the
oil in the each transformer’s windings. Oil level detectors are nothing but variable resistor pots.
The system is also designed to monitor the load current of the transformers. These current
sensors measure the current in the transformer when loads connected to the transformer. An
ACS712 current sensor is used to measure the load current. In this system voltage measurement
is also designed by using voltage transformer. This arrangement is used to monitor under or over
voltage of the transformers when the loads are connected to both the transformers. Toggle
switches are used to connect the loads with the transformers unit. In this system we have used 3
loads for the demo purpose for each transformer.
A 16x2 LCD display is interfaced with the microcontroller and is used for the display
purpose. This LCD display is used to display all the monitored parameters of the transformer.
This LCD display is interfaced in 4 bit mode with the microcontroller.
A Wi-Fi modem is interfaced in this system. This modem is used to send all the
monitored parameters over the internet. All this data will display on the IoT based application
designed using Blynk IoT platform.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
CIRCUIT ACTION:
To drive all the components in this circuit 5V dc and 12V dc are required. The mains give
the 230V ac. The 230V ac is stepped down to 12V ac by using step down transformer. Then the
output is given to the full wave rectifier. The rectifier eliminates the negative peak voltage of the
input voltage .The output of the rectifier is the pulsating dc. The error pulses are eliminating by
using capacitor filter. Then the output at the parallel of the capacitor is the 12V dc. But the Micro
Controller works on 5V dc .To convert the 12V dc into 5V dc a regulator IC LM7805 is used.
The output of the regulator is constant irrespective of the input voltage.
This supply is provided to the microcontrollers to the pins VCC and AVCC which are 5,
17, 27 and 38 of the controller IC as shown in the circuit diagram of the system. At pin no 4 of
Atmega16A microcontroller we have connected a switch and the other terminal of the switch is
connected to ground. So that when this switch is pressed the supply to the controller will be
directly transferred to ground and in this way the controller gets reset.
In this system we have considered two transformers of 1KVA as shown in the circuit
diagram. Both the transformers are connected to voltage transformers, which is used to measure
the voltage of the distribution transformers. The output of these voltage transformers are given to
the microcontroller. This arrangement is designed to monitor the under voltage or over voltage of
the transformer. All the monitored values are fed to the microcontroller, which compares the
obtained value with the reference voltage stored in the microcontroller during the software
program designing. If any exceeded values are obtained by the system, microcontroller will trip
the transformer automatically for the safety.
The hardware of the system consists of two temperature sensors used to monitor the
temperature of the distribution transformers. To measure the temperature of the transformers we
have interfaced LM-35 temperature sensors with both the distribution transformers in the system.
These sensors are connected to the pin numbers 36 and 37 of the controller IC. The LM35 sensor
has three terminals. The power supply is connected to the VCC pin of the sensors. The GND
terminal of the sensors are connected to the ground and the data terminals are used to connect the
sensors with the microcontroller as shown in the circuit diagram of the system. These sensors
give output in the form voltage which is linearly proportional to the Celsius (Centigrade)
temperature.
To monitor the load current, current sensors are interfaced with the microcontroller.
These current sensors are connected to the pin numbers 32 and 33 of the microcontroller IC.
These current sensors provide the data to the microcontroller. The controller processes the data,
compares it with the set value and then displays the readings on the LCD display interfaced with
the microcontroller. In this system we have considered 3 loads for each distribution transformer.
To connect these loads six switches are connected in the circuit, these switches are used to
connect and disconnect the load to the transformer. Three different loads are considered in the
system for the demo purpose. Two 2.2Ω resistors are connected in parallel to each other. One
end of the resistors is grounded. This arrangement is designed to calibrate the voltage for the
measurement.
Two variable resistors (pot) of 100K are connected to the pin number 34 and 35 of the
microcontroller. These pots are used to measure the oil level in the transformer winding of both
transformers. All the monitored value by the system is displayed on the LCD display.
To display all the monitored parameters of the transformers will be display on the 16x2
LCD display interfaced with the microcontroller. This LCD display can display alphabets as well
as numbers, and can display 16 characters on 2 lines. Hence it is known as 16x2 alphanumeric
LCD display. This LCD display is connected in 4 bit mode with the microcontroller. In 4-bit
mode, only four data pins of LCD are connected to the controller. This mode, thus, saves four
pins of the controller unlike 8-bit mode. In 4-bit mode only 4 bit data is send to LCD. Since 8-
bit microcontrollers contains data in 8-bit form so we divide our data in to two nibbles(1
nibble=4-bits). First higher 4-bits(nibble) are send to LCD and then the lower 4-bits(nibble).
Only D4,D5,D6,D7 data pins of LCD are used in 4-bit mode. D1, D2,D3,D4 are left empty. D4
is our least significant bit and D7 is Highest significant bit. Port-C 4 bits PC2-PC5 of
microcontroller are used to send 4-bit data and commands to LCD. These four Pins are
Connected to four data pins of 16x2 LCD (D4,D5,D6,D7). Port-C pin no 26 is connected to RS
(read-write) pin of LCD. Port-C pin no 25 is connected to EN (Enable) pin of 16x2 LCD. The
data lines D4 - D7 are connected to pin no 21-24 of controller. At terminal VO we have
connected a variable resistor in order to adjust the brightness of the LCD. The data of the
different sensor will be continuously displayed on the LCD display.
In order to send all the monitored parameters of the distribution transformers in the
system over the internet we have connected a wi-fi modem with the microcontroller as shown in
the circuit diagram of the system. This wi-fi modem will send all the data to the IOT application
designed for this system with the help of Blynk platform through internet. This wi-fi modem has
transmitter and receiver pins connected to the receiver and transmitter pins of the controller IC
respectively as shown in the diagram. The modem requires 5V supply which is provided by the
power supply unit in the system and connected to the VCC pin of the modem.
Since this system is designed to monitor and control the transformer system,
microcontroller will trip the transformer automatically by sending a signal. The microcontroller
will switch off the transformer after comparing the monitoring values with the reference value
stored in the microcontroller during software designing.
HARDWARE COMPONENT DESCRIPTION:
ATMEGA 16A MICROCONTROLLER:
The Atmel AVR core combines a rich instruction set with 32 general purpose working
registers. All the 32registers are directly connected to the Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU),
allowing two independent registers to beaccessed in one single instruction executed in one clock
cycle. The resulting architecture is more code efficientwhile achieving throughputs up to ten
times faster than conventional CISC microcontrollers.
The ATmega16A provides the following features: 16Kbytes of In-System Programmable

Flash Programmemory with Read-While-Write capabilities; 512bytes EEPROM; 1Kbyte SRAM;
32 general purpose I/O lines,32 general purpose working registers; a JTAG interface for
Boundary-scan; On-chip Debugging support andprogramming; three flexible Timer/Counters
with compare modes; Internal and External Interrupts; a serialprogrammable USART; a byte
oriented Two-wire Serial Interface, an 8-channel; 10-bit ADC with optionaldifferential input
stage with programmable gain (TQFP package only); a programmable Watchdog Timer
withInternal Oscillator; an SPI serial port; and six software selectable power saving modes. The
Idle mode stops theCPU while allowing the USART; Two-wire interface; A/D Converter;
SRAM; Timer/Counters; SPI port; andinterrupt system to continue functioning. The Power-down
mode saves the register contents but freezes theOscillator, disabling all other chip functions until
the next External Interrupt or Hardware Reset. In Power-savemode, the Asynchronous Timer
continues to run, allowing the user to maintain a timer base while the rest of thedevice is
sleeping. The ADC Noise Reduction mode stops the CPU and all I/O modules except
AsynchronousTimer and ADC, to minimize switching noise during ADC conversions. In
Standby mode, the crystal/resonatorOscillator is running while the rest of the device is sleeping.
This allows very fast start-up combined with lowpowerconsumption. In Extended Standby mode,
both the main Oscillator and the Asynchronous Timer continueto run.
The device is manufactured using Atmel’s high density nonvolatile memory technology.
The On-chip ISP Flashallows the program memory to be reprogrammed in-system through an
SPI serial interface, by a conventionalnonvolatile memory programmer, or by an On-chip Boot
program running on the AVR core. The boot programcan use any interface to download the
application program in the Application Flash memory. Software in theBoot Flash section will
continue to run while the Application Flash section is updated, providing true Read-While-Write
operation. By combining an 8-bit RISC CPU with In-System Self-Programmable Flash on
amonolithic chip, the Atmel ATmega16A is a powerful microcontroller that provides a highly-
flexible and costeffectivesolution to many embedded control applications.The ATmega16A is
supported with a full suite of program and system development tools including: C
compilers,macro assemblers, program debugger/simulators, in-circuit emulators, and evaluation
kits.
The ATmega16A is a low-power CMOS 8-bit microcontroller based on the Atmel AVR
enhanced RISC architecture. By executing powerful instructions in a single clock cycle, the
ATmega16A achieves throughputs approaching 1MIPS per MHz allowing the system designer to
optimize power consumption versus processingspeed.
Features:
􀁺 High-performance, Low-power Atmel AVR 8-bit Microcontroller
􀁺 Advanced RISC Architecture
̶ 131 Powerful Instructions – Most Single-clock Cycle Execution
̶ 32 x 8 General Purpose Working Registers
̶ Fully Static Operation
̶ Up to 16MIPS Throughput at 16MHz
̶ On-chip 2-cycle Multiplier
􀁺 High Endurance Non-volatile Memory segments
̶ 16KBytes of In-System Self-programmable Flash program memory
̶ 512Bytes EEPROM
̶ 1KByte Internal SRAM
̶ Write/Erase Cycles: 10,000 Flash/100,000 EEPROM
̶ Data retention: 20 years at 85°C/100 years at 25°C(1)
̶ Optional Boot Code Section with Independent Lock Bits
􀁺 In-System Programming by On-chip Boot Program
􀁺 True Read-While-Write Operation
̶ Programming Lock for Software Security
􀁺 JTAG (IEEE std. 1149.1 Compliant) Interface
̶ Boundary-scan Capabilities According to the JTAG Standard
̶ Extensive On-chip Debug Support
̶ Programming of Flash, EEPROM, Fuses, and Lock Bits through the JTAG
Interface
􀁺 Peripheral Features
̶ Two 8-bit Timer/Counters with Separate Prescalers and Compare Modes
̶ One 16-bit Timer/Counter with Separate Prescaler, Compare Mode, and
Capture Mode
̶ Real Time Counter with Separate Oscillator
̶ Four PWM Channels
̶ 8-channel, 10-bit ADC
􀁺 8 Single-ended Channels
􀁺 7 Differential Channels in TQFP Package Only
􀁺 2 Differential Channels with Programmable Gain at 1x, 10x, or 200x
̶ Byte-oriented Two-wire Serial Interface
̶ Programmable Serial USART
̶ Master/Slave SPI Serial Interface
̶ Programmable Watchdog Timer with Separate On-chip Oscillator
̶ On-chip Analog Comparator
ATmega16A [DATASHEET] 2
Atmel-8154CS-8-bit-AVR-ATmega16A_Datasheet Summary-07/2014
􀁺 Special Microcontroller Features
̶ Power-on Reset and Programmable Brown-out Detection
̶ Internal Calibrated RC Oscillator
̶ External and Internal Interrupt Sources
̶ Six Sleep Modes: Idle, ADC Noise Reduction, Power-save, Power-down, Standby and
Extended Standby
􀁺 I/O and Packages

̶ 32 Programmable I/O Lines
̶ 40-pin PDIP, 44-lead TQFP, and 44-pad QFN/MLF
􀁺 Operating Voltages
̶ 2.7 - 5.5V
􀁺 Speed Grades
̶ 0 - 16MHz
􀁺 Power Consumption @ 1MHz, 3V, and 25°C
̶ Active: 0.6mA
̶ Idle Mode: 0.2mA
̶ Power-down Mode: < 1Μa

PIN DIAGRAM:
PIN DIAGRAM DESCRIPTION:
Pin No. Pin name Description Alternate Function

(XCK/T0) T0: Timer0 External Counter Input.
1 I/O PORTB, Pin 0
PB0 XCK : USART External Clock I/O
2 (T1) PB1 I/O PORTB, Pin 1 T1:Timer1 External Counter Input
(INT2/AIN0) AIN0: Analog Comparator Positive I/P
3 I/O PORTB, Pin 2
PB2 INT2: External Interrupt 2 Input
AIN1: Analog Comparator Negative I/P
(OC0/AIN1)
4 I/O PORTB, Pin 3 OC0 : Timer0 Output Compare Match
PB3
Output
5 (SS) PB4 I/O PORTB, Pin 4
6 (MOSI) PB5 I/O PORTB, Pin 5 In System Programmer (ISP)
7 (MISO) PB6 I/O PORTB, Pin 6 Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI)
8 (SCK) PB7 I/O PORTB, Pin 7

Reset Pin, Active
9 RESET
Low Reset
10 Vcc Vcc = +5V
11 GND GROUND
12 XTAL2 Output to Inverting Oscillator Amplifier
13 XTAL1 Input to Inverting Oscillator Amplifier
14 (RXD) PD0 I/O PORTD, Pin 0
USART Serial Communication Interface
15 (TXD) PD1 I/O PORTD, Pin 1
16 (INT0) PD2 I/O PORTD, Pin 2 External Interrupt INT0
17 (INT1) PD3 I/O PORTD, Pin 3 External Interrupt INT1
(OC1B)
18 I/O PORTD, Pin 4
PD4
PWM Channel Outputs
(OC1A)
19 I/O PORTD, Pin 5
PD5
20 (ICP) PD6 I/O PORTD, Pin 6 Timer/Counter1 Input Capture Pin
Timer/Counter2 Output Compare Match
21 PD7 (OC2) I/O PORTD, Pin 7
Output
22 PC0 (SCL) I/O PORTC, Pin 0
TWI Interface
23 PC1 (SDA) I/O PORTC, Pin 1
24 PC2 (TCK) I/O PORTC, Pin 2 JTAG Interface
25 PC3 (TMS) I/O PORTC, Pin 3
26 PC4 (TDO) I/O PORTC, Pin 4
27 PC5 (TDI) I/O PORTC, Pin 5

PC6
28 I/O PORTC, Pin 6 Timer Oscillator Pin 1
(TOSC1)
PC7
29 I/O PORTC, Pin 7 Timer Oscillator Pin 2
(TOSC2)
30 AVcc Voltage Supply = Vcc for ADC
31 GND GROUND
32 AREF Analog Reference Pin for ADC

PA7
33 I/O PORTA, Pin 7 ADC Channel 7
(ADC7)
PA6
(ADC6)
PA5
(ADC5)
PA4
(ADC4)
PA3
(ADC3)
PA2
(ADC2)
PA1
(ADC1)
PA0
(ADC0)
2.2 Pin Descriptions
2.2.1 VCC
Digital supply voltage.
2.2.2 GND
Ground.
2.2.3 Port A (PA7:PA0)
Port A serves as the analog inputs to the A/D Converter.Port A also serves as an 8-bit bi-
directional I/O port, if the A/D Converter is not used. Port pins can provideinternal pull-up
resistors (selected for each bit). The Port A output buffers have symmetrical drive
characteristicswith both high sink and source capability. When pins PA0 to PA7 are used as
inputs and are externally pulledlow, they will source current if the internal pull-up resistors are
activated. The Port A pins are tri-stated when areset condition becomes active, even if the clock
is not running.
2.2.4 Port B (PB7:PB0)
Port B is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-up resistors (selected for each bit). The
Port B outputbuffers have symmetrical drive characteristics with both high sink and source
capability. As inputs, Port B pinsthat are externally pulled low will source current if the pull-up
resistors are activated. The Port B pins are tristatedwhen a reset condition becomes active, even
if the clock is not running.
2.2.5 Port C (PC7:PC0)
Port C is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-up resistors (selected for each bit). The
Port C outputbuffers have symmetrical drive characteristics with both high sink and source
capability. As inputs, Port C pinsthat are externally pulled low will source current if the pull-up
resistors are activated. The Port C pins are tristatedwhen a reset condition becomes active, even
if the clock is not running. If the JTAG interface is enabled,the pull-up resistors on pins
PC5(TDI), PC3(TMS) and PC2(TCK) will be activated even if a reset occurs.
2.2.6 Port D (PD7:PD0)
Port D is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-up resistors (selected for each bit).
The Port D outputbuffers have symmetrical drive characteristics with both high sink and source
capability. As inputs, Port D pinsthat are externally pulled low will source current if the pull-up
resistors are activated. The Port D pins are tristatedwhen a reset condition becomes active, even
if the clock is not running.Port D also serves the functions of various special features of the
ATmega16A as listed on page 62.
2.2.7 RESET
Reset Input. A low level on this pin for longer than the minimum pulse length will generate a
reset, even if theclock is not running. The minimum pulse length is given in Table 27-2 on page
281. Shorter pulses are notguaranteed to generate a reset.
2.2.8 XTAL1
Input to the inverting Oscillator amplifier and input to the internal clock operating circuit.
2.2.9 XTAL2
Output from the inverting Oscillator amplifier.
2.2.10 AVCC
AVCC is the supply voltage pin for Port A and the A/D Converter. It should be externally
connected to VCC, evenif the ADC is not used. If the ADC is used, it should be connected to
VCC through a low-pass filter.
2.2.11 AREF
AREF is the analog reference pin for the A/D Converter.
CRYSTAL OSCILLATOR:-
FIG.7.1
DESCRIPTION:-
A crystal oscillator is an electronic oscillator circuit that uses the mechanical resonance
of a vibrating crystal of piezoelectric material to create an electrical signal with a very precise
frequency. This frequency is commonly used to keep track of time (as in quartz wristwatches), to
provide a stable clock signal for digitalintegrated circuits, and to stabilize frequencies for radio
transmitters and receivers. The most common type of piezoelectric resonator used is the quartz
crystal, so oscillator circuits designed around them became known as "crystal oscillators."
Quartz crystals are manufactured for frequencies from a few tens of kilohertz to tens of
megahertz. More than two billion (2×109) crystals are manufactured annually. Most are small
devices for consumer devices such as wristwatches, clocks, radios, computers, and cellphones.
Quartz crystals are also found inside test and measurement equipment, such as counters, signal
generators,and oscilloscopes.
It provide clock pulses of 8 Mhz frequency. It can be used as UART clock
(6×1.8432 MHz). It allows integer division to common baud rates (96×115200 baud or
96×96×1,200 baud). It is a common clock for AVR microcontroller It uses the
mechanical resonance of a vibrating crystal of piezoelectric material to create an electrical signal
with a very precise frequency. This frequency is commonly used to keep track of time, to provide
a stable clock signal for digital integrated circuits, and to stabilize frequencies for radio
transmitters and receivers. The most common type of piezoelectric resonator used is
the quartz crystal, so oscillator circuits incorporating them became known as crystal
oscillators. The crystal oscillator circuit sustains oscillation by taking a voltage signal from the
quartz resonator, amplifying it, and feeding it back to the resonator. The rate of expansion and
contraction of the quartz is the resonant frequency, and is determined by the cut and size of the
crystal. When the energy of the generated output frequencies matches the losses in the circuit, an
oscillation can be sustained. One of the most important traits of the crystal oscillator is that it
exhibits very low phase noise. In the crystal oscillator, the crystal mostly vibrates in one axis,
therefore only one phase is dominant. This property of low phase noise makes them particularly
useful in telecommunications where stable signals are required, and in scientific equipment
where very precise time references are needed. The result is that a quartz crystal behaves like a
circuit composed of an inductor,capacitor and resistor, with a precise resonant frequency.
Pierce Oscillator:-
A simplified schematic of the oscillator circuit used in Figure. Note that the typical 2-pin crystal
has been replaced by its equivalent circuit model.
• Co is the pin-to-pin capacitance. Its value is associated with the crystal electrode design and the
crystal holder.
• Rsis the motion resistance. Its value is specified by the crystal manufacturer.
• Cs is the motion capacitance and Lsis the motion inductance, which are not specified, and are
functions of the crystal frequency.
• Rbiasis a feedback resistor, implemented on-chip in Chrontel products, which provides DC
bias to the inverting amplifier.
• C1 and C2 are total capacitance-to-ground at the input and output nodes of the amplifier,
respectively. If external capacitance is not added, the values of the internal capacitance C1 and
C2, including pin parasitic capacitance, are each approximately 15pF to 20pF.
Series and Parallel Resonance:-
There is no such thing as a “series cut” crystal as opposed to a “parallel cut” crystal. The same
crystal can be made to oscillate in series resonance mode or parallel resonance mode. The
frequency of oscillation of a crystal is usually specified by the manufacturer as either the series
resonance frequency or the parallel resonance frequency. A crystal can oscillate in series
resonance, meaning that Ls is resonating with Cs, and the resonance frequency is then simply,
Some oscillator circuits are designed for series resonance and the oscillation frequency shall
equal the specified series resonance value. These series mode oscillators, however, are more
sensitive to temperature and component variations. In fact, most crystals oscillators in today's
ICs are of the parallel resonance type. The oscillation frequency of a parallel mode oscillator is
always higher thanfseries. The actual oscillation frequency of a parallel mode oscillator is
dependent on the equivalent capacitance seen by the crystal.
Where
At parallel resonance, the crystal behaves inductively and resonates with capacitance shunting
the crystal terminals. Depending on the application, especially in microprocessors where Pierce
oscillators are used predominantly, a crystal manufacturer may specify parallel resonance
frequency instead of series resonance frequency. Sincef parallelis a function of the load
capacitance Ceq, it should also be specified along with f parallel.
For PC CPU clock and VGA clock applications, the frequency accuracy required is usually not
very stringent and can easily be satisfied with a 14.318 MHz crystal that has been specified for
operation in either series or parallel resonance modes.
Crystal Power Dissipation:-
This is one of the more important specifications for a crystal. In operation, if the power
dissipated in the crystal exceeds the specified drive level, the crystal may have long term
reliability problems. The oscillation frequency may shift from the desired value, and in extreme
cases the crystal may crack and stop oscillating altogether. For the circuit in Figure 1, crystal
dissipation is given by
Using typical values for Rs, Ceq and V equals 5V, P equals approximately 876 W.
Since increasing the value of C1 and C2 would result in increased power dissipation in the
crystal, itis not recommended that extra capacitance be added to pins XTAL1 and XTAL2 of the
clock chip unless it is absolutely necessary to tune the frequency to a desired value. In the case
that additional capacitances are added, a crystal with a higher drive level should be chosen
according to the above equation.
FEATURES AND USAGE:
 The crystal oscillator circuit sustains oscillation by taking a voltage signal from the
quartz resonator, amplifying it, and feeding it back to the resonator
 It provides clock pulses of 8 MHz frequency.
 The popularity of the crystals is due to low cost.

LM35 Temperature Sensor:
The LM35 series are precision integrated-circuit LM35 temperature sensors, whose
output voltage is linearly proportional to the Celsius (Centigrade) temperature. The LM35 sensor
thus has an advantage over linear temperature sensors calibrated in ° Kelvin, as the user is not
required to subtract a large constant voltage from its output to obtain convenient Centigrade
scaling. The LM35 sensor does not require any external calibration or trimming to provide
typical accuracies of ±¼°C at room temperature and ±¾°C over a full -55 to +150°C temperature
range. Low cost is assured by trimming and calibration at the wafer level. The LM35's low
output impedance, linear output, and precise inherent calibration make interfacing to readout or
control circuitry especially easy.
It can be used with single power supplies, or with plus and minus supplies. As it draws
only 60 µA from its supply, it has very low self-heating, less than 0.1°C in still air. The LM35 is
rated to operate over a - 55° to +150°C temperature range, while the LM35C sensor is rated for a
-40° to +110°C range (-10° with improved accuracy). The LM35 series is available packaged in
hermetic TO-46 transistor packages, while the LM35C, LM35CA, and LM35D are also available
in the plastic TO- 92 transistor package. The LM35D sensor is also available in an 8-lead surface
mount small outline package and a plastic TO-220 package.
Features:
 Calibrated directly in ° Celsius (Centigrade)
 Linear + 10.0 mV/°C scale factor

 0.5°C accuracy guarantee able (at +25°C)
 Rated for full −55° to +150°C range
 Suitable for remote applications
 Low cost due to wafer-level trimming
 Operates from 4 to 30 volts
 Less than 60 μA current drain
 Low self-heating, 0.08°C in still air
 Nonlinearity only ±1⁄4°C typical
 Low impedance output, 0.1 W for 1 mA load

Pin Description:
Pin No Function Name

1 Supply voltage; 5V (+35V to -2V) Vcc
2 Output voltage (+6V to -1V) Output
3 Ground (0V) Ground
CURRENT SENSOR:
The ACS712 provides economical and precise solutions for AC or DC current sensing in
industrial, commercial, and communications systems. The device package allows for easy
implementation by the customer. Typical applications include motor control, load detection and
management, switch mode power supplies, and over current fault protection. The device is not
intended for automotive applications. The device consists of a precise, low-offset, linear Hall
circuit with a copper conduction path located near the surface of the die. Applied current flowing
through this copper conduction path generates a magnetic field which the Hall IC converts into a
proportional voltage. Device accuracy is optimized through the close proximity of the magnetic
signal to the Hall transducer. A precise, proportional voltage is provided by the low-offset,
chopper-stabilized Bi CMOS Hall IC, which is programmed for accuracy after packaging. The
output of the device has a positive slope (>V) when an increasing current flows through the
primary copper conduction path (from pins 1 and 2, to pins 3 and 4), which is the path used for
current sampling. The internal resistance of this conductive path is 1.2 mO typical, providing low
power losses. The thickness of the copper conductor allows survival of the device at up to 5×
over current conditions. The terminals of the conductive path are electrically isolated from the
signal leads (pins 5 through 8). This allows the ACS712 to be used in applications requiring
electrical isolation without the use of opto-isolators or other costly isolation techniques.
Features and Benefits
▪ Low-noise analog signal path
▪ Device bandwidth is set via the new FILTER pin
▪ 5 µs output rise time in response to step input current
▪ 80 kHz bandwidth
▪ Total output error 1.5% at T = 25°C
▪ Small footprint, low-profile SOIC8 package
▪ 1.2 mO internal conductor resistance
▪ 2.1 kVRMS minimum isolation voltage from pins 1-4 to pins 5-8
▪ 5.0 V, single supply operation
▪ 66 to 185 mV/A output sensitivity
▪ Output voltage proportional to AC or DC currents

▪ Factory-trimmed for accuracy
Fig: ACS712 CURRENT SENSOR.
WIFI Modem:
The ESP8266 WiFi Module is a self contained SOC with integrated TCP/IP protocol stack
that can give any microcontroller access to your WiFi network. The ESP8266 is capable of either
hosting an application or offloading all Wi-Fi networking functions from another application
processor. Each ESP8266 module comes pre-programmed with an AT command set firmware. The
ESP8266 module is an extremely cost effective board with a huge, and ever growing, community.
This module has a powerful enough on-board processing and storage capability that allows it
to be integrated with the sensors and other application specific devices through its GPIOs with
minimal development up-front and minimal loading during runtime. Its high degree of on-chip
integration allows for minimal external circuitry, including the front-end module, is designed to
occupy minimal PCB area. The ESP8266 supports APSD for VoIP applications and Bluetooth co-
existence interface, it contains a self-calibrated RF allowing it to work under all operating conditions,
and requires no external RF parts.
There is an almost limitless fountain of information available for the ESP8266, all of which
has been provided by amazing community support. In the Documents section below you will find
many resources to aid you in using the ESP8266, even instructions on how to transforming this
module into an IoT (Internet of Things) solution!
Note: The ESP8266 Module is not capable of 5-3V logic shifting and will require an external Logic
Level Converter. Please do not power it directly from your 5V dev board.
Features:
802.11 b/g/n
Wi-Fi Direct (P2P), soft-AP
Integrated TCP/IP protocol stack
Integrated TR switch, balun, LNA, power amplifier and matching network
Integrated PLLs, regulators, DCXO and power management units
+19.5dBm output power in 802.11b mode
Power down leakage current of <10uA
1MB Flash Memory
Integrated low power 32-bit CPU could be used as application processor
SDIO 1.1 / 2.0, SPI, UART
STBC, 1×1 MIMO, 2×1 MIMO
A-MPDU & A-MSDU aggregation & 0.4ms guard interval
Wake up and transmit packets in < 2ms
Standby power consumption of < 1.0mW (DTIM3)
LCD (Liquid Crystal Display):

LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) screen is an electronic display module and find a wide
range of applications. A 16x2 LCD displayis very basic module and is very commonly used in
various devices and circuits. These modules are preferred over seven segmentsand other multi
segment LEDs. The reasons being: LCDs are economical; easily programmable; have no
limitation of displayingspecial & even custom characters (unlike in seven segments), animations
and so on.A 16x2 LCD means it can display 16 characters per line and there are 2 such lines. In
this LCD each character is displayed in 5x7pixel matrix. This LCD has two registers, namely,
Command and Data.16 Characters x 2 LinesBuilt-in HD44780 Equivalent LCD ControllerWorks
directly with ATMEGA, ARDUINO, PIC and many other microcontroller/kits. 4 or 8 bit data
I/O interfaceLow power consumption.
Features:
 Drive method: 1/16 duty cycle
 Display size: 16 character * 2 lines
 Character structure: 5*8 dots.
 Display data RAM: 80 characters (80*8 bits)
 Character generate ROM: 192 characters
 Character generate RAM: 8 characters (64*8 bits)
 Both display data and character generator RAMs can be read from MPU.
 Internal automatic reset circuit at power ON.
 Built in oscillator circuit.
Fig 3.12 LCD display 16X2
Table 3.3 Pin description of LCD
Fig 3.13 Timing diagram of LCD
Oil level Monitoring
If the oil level of the transformer get low then the transformer may fail or get damaged.Hence it
is priority for the staff member to ensure that transformer should not fail. It is not possible to
continuously monitor the transformer physically. Hence we build this project that will monitor
oil level of the transformer. In this project an oil level sensor is connected to the controller. For
demo purpose a POT is use as oil level sensor.
DESIGN ASPECTS OF POWER SUPPLY:-
Power supply is the first and the most important part of our project. For our project we
require +5V regulated power supply with maximum current rating1A.
Following basic building blocks are required to generate regulated power supply.
TRANSFORMER:
Transformers convert AC electricity from one voltage to another with a little loss of
power. Step-up transformers increase voltage, step-down transformers reduce voltage. Most
power supplies use a step-down transformer to reduce the dangerously high voltage to a safer
low voltage.
FIG 4.1: A TYPICAL TRANSFORMER
The input coil is called the primary and the output coil is called the secondary. There is
no electrical connection between the two coils; instead they are linked by an alternating magnetic
field created in the soft-iron core of the transformer. The two lines in the middle of the circuit
symbol represent the core. Transformers waste very little power so the power out is (almost)
equal to the power in. Note that as voltage is stepped down and current is stepped up.
The ratio of the number of turns on each coil, called the turn’s ratio, determines the ratio
of the voltages. A step-down transformer has a large number of turns on its primary (input) coil
which is connected to the high voltage mains supply, and a small number of turns on its
secondary (output) coil to give a low output voltage.
TURNS RATIO = (Vp /Vs) = ( Np / Ns )
Where,
Vp = primary (input) voltage.
Vs = secondary (output) voltage
Np = number of turns on primary coil
Ns = number of turns on secondary coil
Ip = primary (input) current

Is = secondary (output) current.
Ideal power equation
The ideal transformer as a circuit element
If the secondary coil is attached to a load that allows current to flow, electrical power is
transmitted from the primary circuit to the secondary circuit. Ideally, the transformer is perfectly
efficient; all the incoming energy is transformed from the primary circuit to the magnetic field
and into the secondary circuit. If this condition is met, the incoming electric power must equal
the outgoing power:
Giving the ideal transformer equation
Transformers normally have high efficiency, so this formula is a reasonable

approximation.
If the voltage is increased, then the current is decreased by the same factor. The
impedance in one circuit is transformed by the square of the turns ratio. For example, if an
impedance Zs is attached across the terminals of the secondary coil, it appears to the primary
circuit to have an impedance of (Np/Ns)2Zs. This relationship is reciprocal, so that the impedance
Zp of the primary circuit appears to the secondary to be (Ns/Np)2Zp.
4.2 VOLTAGE REGULATOR 7805
Features
• Output Current up to 1A.
• Output Voltages of 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12, 15, 18, 24V.
• Thermal Overload Protection.
• Short Circuit Protection.
• Output Transistor Safe Operating Area Protection.
Description:
The LM78XX/LM78XXA series of three-terminal positive regulators are available in the
TO-220/D-PAK package and with several fixed output voltages, making them useful in a Wide
range of applications. Each type employs internal current limiting, thermal shutdown and safe
operating area protection, making it essentially indestructible. If adequate heat sinking is
provided, they can deliver over 1A output Current. Although designed primarily as fixed voltage
regulators, these devices can be used with external components to obtain adjustable voltages and
currents.
FIG 4.2(a): BLOCK DIAGRAM OF VOLTAGE REGULATOR
Absolute Maximum Ratings:-

TABLE 4.2(b): RATINGS OF THE VOLTAGE REGULATOR
RECTIFIER:-
A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating current (AC), which

periodically reverses direction, to direct current (DC), current that flows in only one direction, a
process known as rectification. Rectifiers have many uses including as components of power
supplies and as detectors of radio signals. Rectifiers may be made of solid state diodes, vacuum
tube diodes, mercury arc valves, and other components. The output from the transformer is fed to
the rectifier. It converts A.C. into pulsating D.C. The rectifier may be a half wave or a full wave
rectifier. In this project, a bridge rectifier is used because of its merits like good stability and full
wave rectification. In positive half cycle only two diodes (1 set of parallel diodes) will conduct,
in negative half cycle remaining two diodes will conduct and they will conduct only in forward
bias only.
FILTER:-
Capacitive filter is used in this project. It removes the ripples from the output of
rectifier and smoothens the D.C. Output received from this filter is constant until the mains
voltage and load is maintained constant. However, if either of the two is varied, D.C. voltage
received at this point changes. Therefore a regulator is applied at the output stage.
The simple capacitor filter is the most basic type of power supply filter. The use of this
filter is very limited. It is sometimes used on extremely high-voltage, low-current power supplies
for cathode-ray and similar electron tubes that require very little load current from the supply.
This filter is also used in circuits where the power-supply ripple frequency is not critical and can
be relatively high. Below figure can show how the capacitor chages and discharges.
CALCULATIONS FOR POWER SUPPLY DESIGNING:
Specifications of 7805 vtg regulator:
Polarity = +ve
Output vtg : +5v

Output current :1.5A
Output of bridge rectifier for rectification :
Output: 12Vdc = vrms
Vm=vrms x sq. rt of 2
= 12x sq.rt of 2
= 16.97
Vm= PIV =16.97
Value of Filter capacitor :
C= (IxT)/V
T=1/2πf
= 1/2 x3.14×50 hz
Output current of 7805 =1.5 A
C=(1.5 x 3.1847 x10-3 )/5
= 955.41×10-6
=1000 µf
COMPONENT DISCRIPTION
Resistor
Axial-lead resistors on tape. The tape is removed during assembly before the leads are
formed and the part is inserted into the board. In automated assembly the leads are cut and
formed.
A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that implements electrical
resistance as a circuit element. Resistors act to reduce current flow, and, at the same time, act to
lower voltage levels within circuits. In electronic circuits resistors are used to limit current flow,
to adjust signal levels, bias active elements, terminate transmission lines among other uses.
High-power resistors that can dissipate many watts of electrical power as heat may be used as
part of motor controls, in power distribution systems, or as test loads for generators. Resistors
can have fixed resistances that only change slightly with temperature, time or operating voltage.
Variable resistors can be used to adjust circuit elements (such as a volume control or a lamp
dimmer), or as sensing devices for heat, light, humidity, force, or chemical activity.
Resistors are common elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits and are

ubiquitous in electronic equipment. Practical resistors as discrete components can be composed
of various compounds and forms. Resistors are also implemented withinintegrated circuits.
The electrical function of a resistor is specified by its resistance: common commercial

resistors are manufactured over a range of more than nine orders of magnitude. The nominal
value of the resistance will fall within a manufacturing tolerance.
The behavior of an ideal resistor is dictated by the relationship specified by Ohm's law:
Ohm's law states that the voltage (V) across a resistor is proportional to the current (I),
where the constant of proportionality is the resistance (R). For example, if a 300 ohm resistor is
attached across the terminals of a 12 volt battery, then a current of 12 / 300 =
0.04 amperes flows through that resistor.
Practical resistors also have some inductance and capacitance which will also affect the

relation between voltage and current in alternating current circuits.
The ohm (symbol: Ω) is the SI unit of electrical resistance, named after Georg Simon

Ohm. An ohm is equivalent to a volt per ampere. Since resistors are specified and manufactured
over a very large range of values, the derived units of milliohm (1 mΩ = 10 −3 Ω), kilohm (1 kΩ =
103 Ω), and megohm (1 MΩ = 106 Ω) are also in common usage
Resistor color-coding:-
One decade of the E12 series (there are twelve preferred values per decade of values)
shown with their electronic color codes on resistors
A 100 kΩ, 5% axial-lead resistor
A 0 Ω resistor, marked with a single black band

A 2260 ohm, 1% precision resistor with 5 color bands (E96 series), from top 2-2-6-1-1;
the last two brown bands indicate the multiplier (x10), and the 1% tolerance. The larger gap
before the tolerance band is somewhat difficult to distinguish.
To distinguish left from right there is a gap between the C and D bands.
 band A is the first significant figure of component value (left side)
 band B is the second significant figure (some precision resistors have a third significant
figure, and thus five bands).
 band C is the decimal multiplier
 band D if present, indicates tolerance of value in percent (no band means 20%)
For example, a resistor with bands of yellow, violet, red, and gold will have first digit 4
(yellow in table below), second digit 7 (violet), followed by 2 (red) zeros: 4,700 ohms. Gold
signifies that the tolerance is ±5%, so the real resistance could lie anywhere between 4,465 and
4,935 ohms.
Resistors manufactured for military use may also include a fifth band which indicates
component failure rate (reliability); refer to MIL-HDBK-199 for further details.
Tight tolerance resistors may have three bands for significant figures rather than two, or
an additional band indicating temperature coefficient, in units of ppm/K.
All coded components will have at least two value bands and a multiplier; other bands are
optional.
The standard color code per EN 60062:2005 is as follows:
Sign Temp.
Mu
Color ificant Tolerance Coefficient
ltiplier
figures (ppm/K)
×10 2
Black 0 0
– U
50
×10 f 1
Brown 1 1
±1% S
F 00
×10 g 5
Red 2 2
±2% R
G 0
×10 1
Orange 3 3
– P
5
×10 - 2
Yellow 4 4
(±5%) Q
– 5
×10 D 2
Green 5 5
±0.5% Z
D 0
Blue 6 ×10 ±0.25% C 1 Z

6
C 0
×10 B
Violet 7 7
±0.1% 5 M
B
×10 ±0.05% A
Gray 8 8
1 K
(±10%) A
×10
White 9 9
– –
×10
Gold – -1
±5% J –
×10
Silver – -2
±10% K –
None – – ±20% M –
Resistors use preferred numbers for their specific values, which are determined by

their tolerance. These values repeat for every decade of magnitude: 6.8, 68, 680, and so forth. In
the E24 series the values are related by the 24th root of 10, while E12 series are related by the
12th root of 10, and E6 series by the 6th root of 10. The tolerance of device values is arranged so
that every value corresponds to a preferred number, within the required tolerance.
Zero ohm resistors are made as lengths of wire wrapped in a resistor-shaped body which
can be substituted for another resistor value in automatic insertion equipment. They are marked
with a single black band.
The 'body-end-dot' or 'body-tip-spot' system was used for radial-lead (and other
cylindrical) composition resistors sometimes still found in very old equipment; the first band was
given by the body color, the second band by the color of the end of the resistor, and the
multiplier by a dot or band around the middle of the resistor. The other end of the resistor was
colored gold or silver to give the tolerance, otherwise it was 20%.
CAPACITOR:
A capacitor (originally known as a condenser) is a passive two-terminal electrical

component used to store energyelectro-statically in an electric field. The forms of practical
capacitors vary widely, but all contain at least two electrical conductors (plates) separated by
a dielectric (i.e. insulator). The conductors can be thin films, foils or sintered beads of metal or
conductive electrolyte, etc. The "non-conducting" dielectric acts to increase the capacitor's
charge capacity. A dielectric can be glass, ceramic, plastic film, air, vacuum, paper, mica, oxide
layer etc. Capacitors are widely used as parts of electrical circuits in many common electrical
devices. Unlike a resistor, an ideal capacitor does not dissipate energy. Instead, a capacitor
stores energy in the form of an electrostatic field between its plates.
When there is a potential difference across the conductors (e.g., when a capacitor is
attached across a battery), an electric field develops across the dielectric, causing
positive charge +Q to collect on one plate and negative charge −Q to collect on the other plate. If
a battery has been attached to a capacitor for a sufficient amount of time, no current can flow
through the capacitor. However, if a time-varying voltage is applied across the leads of the
capacitor, a displacement current can flow.
An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single constant value for its capacitance.

Capacitance is expressed as the ratio of the electric charge Q on each conductor to the potential
difference V between them. The SI unit of capacitance is the farad (F), which is equal to
one coulomb per volt (1 C/V). Typical capacitance values range from about 1 pF (10−12 F) to
about 1 mF (10−3 F).
The capacitance is greater when there is a narrower separation between conductors and
when the conductors have a larger surface area. In practice, the dielectric between the plates
passes a small amount of leakage current and also has an electric field strength limit, known as
the breakdown voltage. The conductors and leads introduce an undesired inductance and
resistance.
Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for blocking direct current while

allowing alternating current to pass. In analog filter networks, they smooth the output of power
supplies. In resonant circuits they tune radios to particular frequencies. In electric power
transmission systems, they stabilize voltage and power flow.
A capacitor consists of two conductors separated by a non-conductive region. The non-

conductive region is called the dielectric. In simpler terms, the dielectric is just an electrical
insulator. Examples of dielectric media are glass, air, paper, vacuum, and even
a semiconductordepletion region chemically identical to the conductors. A capacitor is assumed
to be self-contained and isolated, with no net electric charge and no influence from any external
electric field. The conductors thus hold equal and opposite charges on their facing surfaces, and
the dielectric develops an electric field. In SI units, a capacitance of one farad means that one
coulomb of charge on each conductor causes a voltage of one volt across the device.
An ideal capacitor is wholly characterized by a constant capacitance C, defined as the
ratio of charge ±Q on each conductor to the voltage V between them:
Because the conductors (or plates) are close together, the opposite charges on the
conductors attract one another due to their electric fields, allowing the capacitor to store more
charge for a given voltage than if the conductors were separated, giving the capacitor a large
capacitance.
Sometimes charge build-up affects the capacitor mechanically, causing its capacitance to
vary. In this case, capacitance is defined in terms of incremental changes:
DIODE:
In electronics, a diode is a two-terminal electronic component with

asymmetric conductance; it has low (ideally zero) resistance to current in one direction, and high
(ideally infinite) resistance in the other. A semiconductor diode, the most common type today, is
a crystalline piece of semiconductor material with a p–n junction connected to two electrical
terminals. A vacuum tube diode has two electrodes, a plate (anode) and a heated cathode.
Semiconductor diodes were the first semiconductor electronic devices. The discovery of crystal’s
rectifying abilities was made by German physicist Ferdinand Braun in 1874. The first
semiconductor diodes, called cat's whisker diodes, developed around 1906, were made of
mineral crystals such as galena. Today, most diodes are made of silicon, but other
semiconductors such as selenium or germanium are sometimes used.
A p–n junction diode is made of a crystal of semiconductor, usually silicon,

but germanium and gallium arsenide are also used. Impurities are added to it to create a region
on one side that contains negative charge carriers (electrons), called n-type semiconductor, and a
region on the other side that contains positive charge carriers (holes), called p-type
semiconductor. When two materials i.e. n-type and p-type are attached together, a momentary
flow of electrons occur from n to p side resulting in a third region where no charge carriers are
present. This region is called the depletion region due to the absence of charge carriers (electrons
and holes in this case). The diode's terminals are attached to the n-type and p-type regions. The
boundary between these two regions, called a p–n junction, is where the action of the diode takes
place. The crystal allows electrons to flow from the N-type side (called the cathode) to the P-type
side (called the anode), but not in the opposite direction
The most common function of a diode is to allow an electric current to pass in one
direction (called the diode's forward direction), while blocking current in the opposite direction
(the reverse direction). Thus, the diode can be viewed as an electronic version of a check valve.
This unidirectional behaviour is called rectification, and is used to convert alternating
current to direct current, including extraction of modulation from radio signals in radio receivers
—these diodes are forms of rectifiers.
However, diodes can have more complicated behaviour than this simple on–off action,
due to their nonlinear current-voltage characteristics. Semiconductor diodes begin conducting
electricity only if a certain threshold voltage or cut-in voltage is present in the forward direction
(a state in which the diode is said to be forward-biased). The voltage drop across a forward-
biased diode varies only a little with the current, and is a function of temperature; this effect can
be used as a temperature sensor or voltage reference.
Semiconductor diodes' current–voltage characteristic can be tailored by varying

the semiconductor materials and doping, introducing impurities into the materials. These
techniques are used to create special-purpose diodes that perform many different functions. For
example, diodes are used to regulate voltage (Zener diodes), to protect circuits from high voltage
surges (avalanche diodes), to electronically tune radio and TV receivers (Varactor diodes), to
generate radio-frequency oscillations (tunnel diodes, Gunn diodes,IMPATT diodes), and to
produce light (light-emitting diodes). Tunnel, Gunn and IMPATT diodes exhibit negative
resistance, which is useful in microwave and switching circuits.
LED
A light-emitting diode (LED) is a two-lead semiconductor light source. It is a basic pn-

junction diode, which emits light when activated. When a suitable voltage is applied to the
leads, electrons are able to recombine with electron holes within the device, releasing energy in
the form of photons. This effect is called electroluminescence, and the color of the light
(corresponding to the energy of the photon) is determined by the energy band gap of the
semiconductor.
An LED is often small in area (less than 1 mm2) and integrated optical components may
be used to shape its radiation pattern.
Appearing as practical electronic components in 1962, the earliest LEDs emitted low-

intensity infrared light. Infrared LEDs are still frequently used as transmitting elements in
remote-control circuits, such as those in remote controls for a wide variety of consumer
electronics. The first visible-light LEDs were also of low intensity, and limited to red. Modern
LEDs are available across the visible,ultraviolet, and infrared wavelengths, with very high
brightness.
Early LEDs were often used as indicator lamps for electronic devices, replacing small
incandescent bulbs. They were soon packaged into numeric readouts in the form of seven-
segment displays, and were commonly seen in digital clocks.
Recent developments in LEDs permit them to be used in environmental and task lighting.
LEDs have many advantages over incandescent light sources including lower energy
consumption, longer lifetime, improved physical robustness, smaller size, and faster switching.
Light-emitting diodes are now used in applications as diverse as aviation lighting, automotive
headlamps, advertising, general lighting, traffic signals, and camera flashes. However, LEDs
powerful enough for room lighting are still relatively expensive, and require more precise current
and heat management than compact fluorescent lamp sources of comparable output.
LEDs have allowed new text, video displays, and sensors to be developed, while their
high switching rates are also useful in advanced communications technology.
On October 7, 2014, the Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded to Isamu Akasaki, Hiroshi
Amano and Shuji Nakamura for "the invention of efficient blue light-emitting diodes which has
enabled bright and energy-saving white light sources" or, less formally, LED lamps.
Conventional LEDs are made from a variety of inorganic semiconductor materials.
The following table shows the available colors with wavelength range, voltage drop and
material:
Voltagedrop [ΔV
Color Wavelength [nm] Semiconductor material
]
Gallium arsenide (GaAs)
Infrared λ > 760 ΔV < 1.63
Aluminium gallium arsenide (AlGaAs)
Aluminium gallium arsenide (AlGaAs)

Gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP)
Red 610 < λ < 760 1.63 < ΔV < 2.03 Aluminium gallium indium
phosphide (AlGaInP)
Gallium(III) phosphide (GaP)

Aluminium gallium indium
Orange 590 < λ < 610 2.03 < ΔV < 2.10
phosphide (AlGaInP)

Yellow 570 < λ < 590 2.10 < ΔV < 2.18
phosphide (AlGaInP)
Green 500 < λ < 570 1.9 < ΔV < 4.0 Traditional green:

phosphide (AlGaInP)
Aluminium gallium phosphide (AlGaP)
Pure green:
Indium gallium nitride (InGaN) / Gallium(III)
nitride (GaN)
Zinc selenide (ZnSe)
Indium gallium nitride (InGaN)
Blue 450 < λ < 500 2.48 < ΔV < 3.7
Silicon carbide (SiC) as substrate
Silicon (Si) as substrate—under development
Violet 400 < λ < 450 2.76 < ΔV < 4.0 Indium gallium nitride (InGaN)
Dual blue/red LEDs,

Purple Multiple types 2.48 < ΔV < 3.7 blue with red phosphor,
or white with purple plastic
Diamond (235 nm)[73]
Boron nitride (215 nm)[74][75]
Aluminium nitride (AlN) (210 nm)[76]
Ultraviolet λ < 400 3.1 < ΔV < 4.4
Aluminium gallium nitride (AlGaN)
Aluminium gallium indium nitride (AlGaInN)
—down to 210 nm[77]
Blue with one or two phosphor layers:

yellow with red, orange or pink phosphor
Pink Multiple types ΔV ~ 3.3[78] added afterwards,
or white phosphors with pink pigment or dye
over top.[79]
White Broad spectrum ΔV = 3.5 Blue/UV diode with yellow phosphor
PCB DESIGNING
For a certain number of projects, including first-prototype, surface mount 'bread-

boarding', layout experimentation, rapid multiple-revisions, and 1-hour deadlines doing your
own PCB etching can be quick, clean, and very inexpensive. The method set up in the Media Lab
basement is somewhat-similar to that of large pcb manufacture shops, except in scale and
automation. There is no system for through-hole plating, automated drilling/routing or multilayer
design. However, you can make precisely aligned doublesided boards with simple registration
techniques.
When To Use
A tool is only good towards the application it was designed for. Using the etcher for
something other than what it is good for will frustrate you and waste time.
When using the spray etcher is a good idea:
 You need the boards quickly
 The substrate is 1/16" with 1oz or 2oz copper either FR4 or paper phenolic (preferred)
 The design is single sided
 There are many surface mount parts
 The design is double sided, with no hidden vias (vias underneath surfacemount parts) or
through-hole part vias (vias that also serve as through-hole component holes) that you
cannot solder on both sides
 You can visually scan for shorts
 The design follows a 12/12 mil rule (this is probably not true, I'm sure 10/10 or even 8/8
is fine, but yield will drop) that is, 12mil minimum trace width, and 12mil minimum trace
distance.
 You only need a few boards, or are willing to live with a yield as low as 50%
 Drill hole locations can be imprecise (up to 10 mils off!)
Conversely, when using the spray etcher is a bad idea:
 You dislike wet chemistry/cleaning
 Are using exotic substrates

 There are many vias, or through whole parts, and you don’t want to drill holes/solder
vias.
 You want the boards to be perfect without checking for shorts or opens
 You need printed overlays, multiple layers, through hole plating or solder masks.
 You want many parts. Remember that for $200 you can just about get as many boards as
your heart desires, and from a reputable PCB manufacturer.
Getting the Layout Ready
In this step you will prepare your layout for etching. For this step you will need: a quality
laser printer, a sheet of translucent paper.
The photoresist method we use in PCB etching is a positive process, which means that
when UV light hits the resist, it softens, and then is washed away. What remains is a positive of
the PCB design. What this boils down to is that you will want a positive printout of your PCB
design (black where there will be copper) preferably mirrored. Most all PCB design tools let you
print out your layout mirrored. Or you can mirror your entire design in the software. Whichever
also, if possible, have it print white holes where you will drill, these will be your drill guides.
Because the drill holes will not be precise, make your annular rings (the copper around a drill
hole) larger than normal. Since you will lose as many as half of the design to
exposure/development/etching flaws, tile 2-3 times layouts as many as you want.
In Eagle: After your design is ready, go to the CAM Processor, and open the
"layout2.cam" job. As output select PS. Change the extension to ".ps" as well. Be sure
that Mirror is selected but that Fill Pads is not. Then open the ps with any free postscript viewer
and print it. (Also you could print it to "Gerber274x" and use a gerber viewer, or any other
format you can print.)
After you have verified the above, print your design to a high quality (600dpi at least)
laser printer, in monochrome mode, onto a white piece of paper. Double check that it is as you
want it, in the correct orientation, enough tiling, mirrored, dark ink, slightly smaller than the PCB
you have, etc. Now print it onto translucent paper, there is a box of it in the cabinet underneath
the etcher, in a thin cardboard sleeve.
This photo has notes. Move your mouse over the photo to see them.
Left, plain paper test. Right, translucent paper. Both are mirrored.
In this picture, I have two layouts I want to etch. I tiled one three times and one twice.
The one I tiled three times has a very fine pitch IC (TSSOP-16) so it is less likely to come out.
On the left is opaque laser print. On the right, translucent paper. Note that the design (notice-able
the text) is mirrored.
Exposing the Board
This step transfers your layout design to a positive-resist PCB by exposing UV light to
the sensitized PCB with the printout as a mask. For this step you will need: a
presensitizedpositive photoresist copper clad board, scissors, tape, a UV bulb and thin plate glass
or exposure unit. This step takes 5-10 minutes.
First cut out the layout leaving a few millimeters of space on the edges. If you are going
to perform the exposing and etching in the same session, go ahead and turn the etching machine
on now, since it takes 10 minutes to warm up.
Cut the translucent paper, leaving at least a few mm boarder
Next, locate an unused PCB. There is a bag of them in the cabinet underneath the etcher.
You may need to cut a larger board down using a metal shear. Using a larger PCB than necessary
is wasteful, and exhausts the chemicals faster than a board that is well-fit. You can also purchase
your own stash of PCB material in many different substrates, thicknesses, etc. and, of course,
that is encouraged. (See "Where to Purchase Supplies, at bottom")
The best PCBs are those that have a plastic sticky sheet protecting them (some are just
sold in a plastic bag) so that they can be handled, drilled and sheared without excess UV
exposure. The plastic is easy to peel off:
The underlying substrate should be a greenish color.
Place your design on top of the exposed resist, ink-side down, so that it appears not-
mirrored when you look through the paper at the board. Placing the ink closest to the resist
means less light can leak around and cut into thin traces. Next, tape down the design on two
edges, so that the tape does not overlap any of the layout, but holds the paper flat.
Use any plain tape to tape down two opposite sides without overlapping the layout
now take it to be exposed under a UV lamp. As an arbitrary measure, a 15W Sylvania

"350 Blacklight" UV 24" flourescent bulb, 3" above a FOTOBOARD2-brand board, with a 1/8"
clear glass plate (to keep the paper totally flat) over the board, 10 minutes will give good
exposure. [When a more permanent fixture is found, it will be calibrated.]
After it has been exposed, peel off one piece of tape and flip it open, to look at the
photoresist. Well exposed photoresist is a paler green, and you will be able to see the layout in
the original, yellower green, faintly. If you don't see anything, retape that side, and try a few
more minutes under the lamp.
The unexposed part is faintly visible, on the right side.
Once you think you're done exposing, lift off the design and put it away in case you want
to make another set of boards. You are ready to perform the chemical processing. If you need to
do this part later, or you have other boards to expose, place this board in an opaque container
(like in an envelope, face down, in a drawer or somesuch.)
Developing the Board
In this step, the exposed photoresist is removed chemically using developer, leaving a
positive of your layout in photoresist on copper. For this step you will need: gloves, apron, sink,
dev tray, developer, small soft sponge. This step takes 3 minutes.
Take the board over to your processing area. Put on the apron and a pair of 'rubber
gloves'. These wet chemicals can splash, some stain, and they are not good to drink. Find the dev
tray and the bottle of developer, (both marked DEV) and make sure the tray is clean. There is
one set of large trays (for > 5x7") and one small set, use the ones that fits best. Place the board
face up in the tray and pour developer in until there is about 1/4" (or enough to cover) in the tray.
Carefully pour into a tray. The developer is green from use, it starts out clear
Almost immediately the board will start to 'leak' resist as it is attacked by developer.
Agitate the board with your hand, and swirl the developer around to make sure there is a flow
around the board. It should be developed in 1/2 to 1 minute. If you leave it in too long, some of
the finer traces will not come out. Leaving it in too little means that there will be a very thin,
invisible, layer of resist left that will stop the etching process and force you to repeat this step.
Use a soft sponge to wipe the photoresist away.
Before rinsing, rub down the board with a soft cloth or sponge soaked in developer
Rinse the board in cold water to clean off the developer (stop bath), the parts that are to
be etched should look like completely clean copper, no residue. If you feel a slimy/slippery
coating, or see a bluish coating, you need to develop more. If none of the resist came off, you'll
need to realign your paper and re-expose the board. Pour the developer back into the bottle, and
rinse off the tray. The board is now ready to etch.
A well developed board has solid green traces and a clean copper background
First Rinse
In this step, the board is spray rinsed to prepare it for etching. This step takes 2 minutes.
First check to see that the machine is on. If not, turn the machine on.
The Rota-Spray machine, the wash tank is on the left, the etching tank on the right.
The on button is in the top left corner.
Once on, the left LED display should display "oC" and then something like "23" which
means the etchant is at 23degC. Now load the board into the board holding apparatus, placing it
near the center, and securing the plastic nuts. Make sure the board won’t fall out and into the
tank.
The board holder can hold many small boards, but make sure they cant fall out
Slide the board holder, with the copper facing right, into the wash tank. Attach the water
hose (black, with white plastic spring-end) to the sink faucent, and turn on the cold water.
The connector is a little difficult to use, requiring that you simultaneously push down on
the ring while pressing the brass fitting into the faucet head. Two handed might be easier at first.
Turn on the wash spray to clean off the board. You can move the holder up and down to
make sure the board is sprayed off.
Make sure the water drains cleanly into the sink. This is the older setup, in the current lab
there should be a PVC drainage pipe into the large sink so there shouldn’t be any drain problems
Etching the Board
In this step, the board is placed in an etcher, which is a machine that washes warm ferric
chloride (or another etchant) over the board, eating away any exposed copper. For this step you
will need to make sure the etchant is warm enough to use. This step takes 2minutes.
Move the holder into the etching tank, again facing to the right. Check that the
temperature monitor reports 42-45 degrees C, and that the fluid well feels warm. also make sure
the top is secured so that there is very little chance FeCl will spray out the top. By default the
timer is set for 1:30 minutes, which I've found satisfactory. You can also change the time if
necessary (for different weights of copper). Turn on the spray pump by pressing start. The entire
tank will turn reddish brown as the etchant removes the copper from your board. After the time is
up, remove the holder and quickly put it in the wash tank again. Be careful as there will be a lot
of FeCl dripping off the holder and you donot want it going anywhere but in the machine or the
sink.
The board is very messy at this point, so do the move quickly and carefully.
Second Rinse
Turn on the wash spray again, moving the holder around so that the entire board and
holder are completely cleaned off. After the water runs clean, remove the board and examine it.
There may be parts that didn't etch, or overetched. Depending on your patience and yield, you
may decide to re-etch a subset of your boards.
There are some traces of un-etched copper on the right. Since I only needed one PCB, I
just threw it away.
Examine all the boards carefully to determine which ones have shorts/opens/missing
traces/etc, and which ones are good for use. Shut off the water faucet, run the spray to clean out
the hose, turn off the machine and disconnect the hose from the faucet.
Strip
In this step, the remaining photoresist is stripped away, leaving only copper. For this step
you will need chemical stripper and/or a scrub pad. This step takes 2 minutes.
Place the board facing up in the STRIP tray, and coat it with resist stripper. This may be
in a bottle or in a 'shoepolish' dispenser. Rub in the chemical first with the soft sponge, then with
a plastic scrub pad. The green resist should come off, revealing copper underneath. Make sure
-all- of the resist is removed, as it smells very bad when it gets hot (when soldering.) If there is
no stripper, you can just scrub it off with a green scrub pad. If the stripper came from a bottle,
pour it back in. Rinse off the board and tray.
You can easily remove the resist with just a green scouring pad
Tinning
This step is optional but is very helpful for soldering to your board. For this step you will
need: tinning liquid mix. This step takes 2-10 minutes.
Find the bottle of tinning liquid, and the TIN tray. Place the board in the tray copper up,
and pour in enough tinning liquid to cover the board, the copper should immediately turn a
silvery color. If you intend to reflow solder, you may want to leave it for 15 minutes, otherwise,
3-5 is probably fine. Use this time to clean up the area around the etcher, rinse off surfaces and
clean and dry any trays. When the board is done, remove and rinse it. Pour the tinning liquid
back into the bottle and clean the tray. Throw away the gloves, and put the apron back. Make
sure the area looks better than it did when you got there.
The exposed copper will turn silver almost immediately, tin will aid soldering and stop
oxidation.
Drilling
In this step, any holes or vias in the PCB are drilled out. For this step you will need: a
drill press that can run at 2000+ RPM, high-speed carbide wire-gauge drill bits. This step takes
3-10 minutes, depending on number of holes in PCB.
If your PCB is FR4 laminate, you may want to find a dust mask for this step, since
fiberglass dust is carcinogenic. Chances are, you're using paper phenolic which is much safer.
There is a box of HSS carbide drill bits in a box underneath the etcher, they are packaged in
plastic boxes of 10. Find the boxes of closest size to your board holes. In general, .020"/75ga is
good for RF vias, .028"/70ga is good for signal vias, .035"/65ga is good for
DIP/LEDs/Resistors/Capacitors, etc., .042"/58ga is good for TO-220/heavier diodes/etc., .
060"/53ga for heavier wires and power components, and .086"/44ga for mounting holes or
anything else. Other drill sizes are available for purchase, of course.

Left, these are inexpensive re-sharpened drill bits $7.50 a box. Right, 70 gauge is as small
as you'll need
Place the first drill bit in the chuck, and tighten it well. Find a piece of wood to place
underneath the board for support. While the drill is running, adjust the speed to 2000RPM or
higher.
The drillpress in the media lab shop is more than sufficient, adjust it only while running
Drill all holes of one size at a time. Try to position the drill bit right in the center of the
hole, or at least, try not to drill through any copper traces. The drill bits might break, especially if
they sub-35mil. Holding the board steady while drilling through it helps. The bits only cost 75
cents so just throw them away when broken, but if you break more than 5, you should purchase a
replacement set.
You can drill a hole a second if you donot clamp down the board, but breakage is more
likely
After all the drilling, replace the bits in their boxes, and put the box back underneath the
etcher.
Shearing
In this step, the tiled layouts are separated. For this step you will need a metal shear (this
step could also be done with a band saw.) This step takes 2 minutes.
Shear or cut the good boards out, leaving a few mm on each edge. The edges may be filed
or sanded.
A metal shear, such as the one outside the shop, is goodfor this. Go slowly and use the
middle.
COMPONENT COSTING:
COMPONENT SPECIFICATION COST/ITEM
TRANSFORMER 12-0-12V 2A 200/-
RESISTOR 2.2K,10K,470K,100E 1/-
CAPACITOR 1000uF, 100uF, 33pF 5/-
DIODE IN4007 2/-
LED 3mm 5/-
SWITCH PUSH TO ON 10/-

CRYSTAL 4MHz 20/-
MICROCONTROLLER ATMEGA16A 350/-
REGULATOR LM7805 15/-
LCD 16X2 250/-
TOGGLE SWITCH 20/-
Wi-Fi ESP01 2500/-
MAX MAX 232 25/-
TEMPERATURE SENSOR LM-35 250/-
CURRENT SENSOR ACS712 550/-
POTENTIOMETER 25/-
ADVANTAGES:
 It prevents circuitry from damage.

 Avoid interruption in power supply.
 Transformer safety.
 Save time.
 Save men power.
 System can be monitored from anywhere.
 Easy to install.
 No maintenance required.
 Very affordable price.
DISADVANTAGES:
 Circuit become bulky.
APPLICATIONS:
 Power grid.
 Factories.
 Industrial area.
RESULT:
Hence by using this project we can monitor the various parameters of the distribution
transformer live using IoT technology.
CONCLUSION:
The remote monitoring system that has been developed was useful in understanding the
conditions of the transformer. It also enables the operator to monitor the parameters far away
from the transformer without the displacement of the crew. This system uses very little power
consumption and has a long life. This system is cost effective and is easy to operate, to maintain,
and to reproduce massively with low cost for applications in the field.
FUTURE SCOPE:
We can also use a GSM modem to send alert message to the authorized person which will
help in case of poor internet network.
REFERENCE:
[1] P. M. Anderson (1998). Power system protection.New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. P.673.
[2] J. Lewis Blackburn, Thomas J. Domin (2006). Protective Relaying Principles and
Applications. 3rd ed. United States of America: CRC press Leonard L. Grigsby (2007).
TheElectric Power Engineering Handbook. 2nd ed. United States of America: CRC press.
[3] Ali Reza Fereidunian, MansoorehZangiabadi, MajidSanaye-Pasand, GholamPournaghi,

(2003) ‘Digital DifferentialRelays For Transformer Protection Using Walsh Series And Least
Squares Estimators’. CIRED (International Conference on Electricity),pp. 1-6.
[4] Mazouz A. SalaharAbdallah R. Al-zyoud (2010), ‘Modellingof transformer differential

protection using programmablelogic controllers’ European journal of scientific
research,41(3), pp. 452-459.
[5] R. A. LARNER and K. R. GRUESEN, (1959).FuseProtection or High-Voltage

Power Transformers, pp.864-873. [6] S.M Bashi, N. Mariun and A.rafa (2007).
‘Power Transformer protection using microcontroller based relay’,Journal of applied science,
7(12), pp.1602-1607.

Iot Based Transformer Monitoring System.

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Iot Based Transformer Monitoring System.

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TRANSFORMER MONITORING

In power systems, distribution transformer is electrical equipment which distributes

(1) Ordinary transformer measurement system generally detects a single transformer

Fault may occur in transformers due to –

 Over Load (High Current)

According to the above requirements, we need two distribution transformers real-time

OBJECTIVE OF THE PROJECT:

BLOCK DIAGRAM DESRIPTION:

ATMEGA 16A MICROCONTROLLER:

The ATmega16A provides the following features: 16Kbytes of In-System Programmable

􀁺 High-performance, Low-power Atmel AVR 8-bit Microcontroller

􀁺 Advanced RISC Architecture

̶ 131 Powerful Instructions – Most Single-clock Cycle Execution

̶ 32 x 8 General Purpose Working Registers

̶ Fully Static Operation

̶ Up to 16MIPS Throughput at 16MHz

̶ On-chip 2-cycle Multiplier

􀁺 High Endurance Non-volatile Memory segments

̶ 16KBytes of In-System Self-programmable Flash program memory

̶ 1KByte Internal SRAM

̶ Write/Erase Cycles: 10,000 Flash/100,000 EEPROM

̶ Data retention: 20 years at 85°C/100 years at 25°C(1)

̶ Optional Boot Code Section with Independent Lock Bits

􀁺 In-System Programming by On-chip Boot Program

􀁺 True Read-While-Write Operation

̶ Programming Lock for Software Security

􀁺 JTAG (IEEE std. 1149.1 Compliant) Interface

̶ Boundary-scan Capabilities According to the JTAG Standard

̶ Extensive On-chip Debug Support

̶ Two 8-bit Timer/Counters with Separate Prescalers and Compare Modes

̶ One 16-bit Timer/Counter with Separate Prescaler, Compare Mode, and

̶ Real Time Counter with Separate Oscillator

̶ Four PWM Channels

̶ 8-channel, 10-bit ADC

􀁺 7 Differential Channels in TQFP Package Only

􀁺 2 Differential Channels with Programmable Gain at 1x, 10x, or 200x

̶ Byte-oriented Two-wire Serial Interface

̶ Programmable Serial USART

̶ Master/Slave SPI Serial Interface

̶ Programmable Watchdog Timer with Separate On-chip Oscillator

̶ On-chip Analog Comparator

􀁺 Special Microcontroller Features

̶ Power-on Reset and Programmable Brown-out Detection

̶ Internal Calibrated RC Oscillator

̶ External and Internal Interrupt Sources

􀁺 I/O and Packages

̶ 40-pin PDIP, 44-lead TQFP, and 44-pad QFN/MLF

􀁺 Power Consumption @ 1MHz, 3V, and 25°C

̶ Idle Mode: 0.2mA

̶ Power-down Mode: < 1Μa

Pin No. Pin name Description Alternate Function

8 (SCK) PB7 I/O PORTB, Pin 7

26 PC4 (TDO) I/O PORTC, Pin 4

27 PC5 (TDI) I/O PORTC, Pin 5

32 AREF Analog Reference Pin for ADC

Digital supply voltage.

2.2.3 Port A (PA7:PA0)

2.2.4 Port B (PB7:PB0)

2.2.5 Port C (PC7:PC0)

2.2.6 Port D (PD7:PD0)

Output from the inverting Oscillator amplifier.

AREF is the analog reference pin for the A/D Converter.

 It provides clock pulses of 8 MHz frequency.

 The popularity of the crystals is due to low cost.