1|EEE-PART(A)

CHAPTER NAME PAGE

ELECTRONICS 2 - 14

SENSOR & TRANSDUCER 15 - 23

ELECTRICAL MACHINE 24 - 41

POWER SYSTEM 42 - 59

RTP
2|EEE-PART(A)

ELECTRONICS

[1] Describe the V-I characteristic of a semiconductor diode.[********]

Volt-ampere or V-I characteristic of a semiconductor diode is the curve between voltage
across the junction and the circuit current. Usually, voltage is taken along x-axis and current
along y-axis. Fig.1.3 shows the circuit arrangement for determining the V-I characteristics of
a pn junction. The characteristics can be studied under three heads, namely
o Zero external voltage
o Forward bias
o Reverse bias.

Fig.1.3: Circuit for V-I characteristics

Zero External Voltage:When the external voltage is zero, i.e. circuit is open at K, the
potential barrier at the junction does not permit current flow. Therefore, the circuit current is
zero as indicated by point O in Fig.1.4.

Fig.1.4: V-I characteristics of pn junction

Forward Bias: With forward bias to the pn junction i.e. p-type connected to positive terminal
and n-type connected to negative terminal, the potential barrier is reduced. At some forward
voltage the potential barrier is altogether eliminated and current starts flowing in the circuit.
RTP
3|EEE-PART(A)

From now onwards, the current increases with the increase in forward voltage. Thus, a rising
curve OB is obtained with forward bias as shown in Fig. 1.4. From the forward characteristic,
it is seen that at first(region OA),the current
increases very slowly and the curve is non-linear. It is because the external applied voltage is
used up in overcoming the potential barrier. However, once the external voltage exceeds the
potential barrier voltage, the pn junction behaves like an ordinary conductor. Therefore, the
current rises very sharply with increase in external voltage (region AB on the curve).

Fig.1.5

Reverse Bias: With reverse bias to the pn junction i.e. p -type connected to negative terminal
and n-type connected to positive terminal, potential barrier at the junction is increased.
Therefore, the junction resistance becomes very high and practically no current flows through
the circuit. However, in practice, a very small current flows in the circuit with reverse bias as
Fig. 1.4. shown in the reverse characteristic. As shown in Fig.1.5, to these minority carriers,
the applied reverse bias appears as forward bias. Therefore, a small current flows in the
reverse direction. If reverse voltage is increased continuously, the kinetic energy of electrons
(minority carriers) may become high enough to knock out electrons from the semiconductor
atoms. At this stage breakdown of the junction occurs characterized by a sudden rise of
reverse current and a sudden fall of the resistance of barrier region. This may destroy the
junction permanently.

[2] Write short-notes on the following topics related to P-N junction: (i) Knee voltage (ii)
Breakdown voltage (iii) Peak inverse voltage (PIV)[****]

Knee Voltage
It is the forward voltage at which the current through the junction starts to increase
rapidly.When a diode is forward biased, it conducts current very slowly until we overcome
the potential barrier. For silicon pn junction, potential barrier is 0.7V whereas it is 0.3 V for
germanium junction. It is clear from Fig.1.7 that knee voltage for silicon diode is 0.7V and
0.3V for germanium diode. Once the applied forward voltage exceeds the knee voltage, the
current starts increasing rapidly. It may be added here that in order to get useful
current through a pn junction, the applied voltage must be more than the knee voltage.

RTP
4|EEE-PART(A)

Fig.1.7
Breakdown Voltage
It is the minimum reverse voltage at which pn junction breaks down with sudden rise in
reverse current. Under normal reverse voltage, a very little reverse current flow through a pn
junction. However, if the reverse voltage attains a high value, the junction may break down
with sudden rise in reverse current. For understanding this point, refer to Fig.1.6. Even at
room temperature, some hole-electron pairs (minority carriers) are produced in the depletion
layer as shown in Fig. 1.6(i). With reverse bias, the electrons move towards the positive
terminal of supply. At large reverse voltage, these electrons acquire high enough velocities to
dislodge valence electrons from semiconductor atoms as shown in Fig.1.6(ii). The newly
liberated electrons in turn free other valence electrons. In this way, we get an a valance of
free electrons. Therefore, the pn junction conducts a very large reverse current. Once the
breakdown voltage is reached, the high reverse current may damage the junction. Therefore,
care should be taken that reverse voltage across a pn junction is always less than the
breakdown voltage.

Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV)

It is the maximum reverse voltage that can be applied to the pn junction without damage to
the junction. If the reverse voltage across the junction exceeds its PIV, the junction may be
destroyed due to excessive heat. The peak inverse voltage is of particular importance in
rectifier service. A pn junction i.e. a crystal diode is used as a rectifier to change alternating
current into direct current. In such applications, care should be taken that reverse voltage
across the diode during negative half-cycle of a.c. does not exceed the PIV of diode.

RTP
5|EEE-PART(A)

[3] Prove that the maximum efficiency of a half-wave rectifier is 40.6%.

[4] Describe the operation of a full-wave bridge rectifier circuit.[*****]

During the positive half-cycle of secondary voltage, the end P of the secondary winding
becomes positive and end Q negative. This makes diodes D1and D3 forward biased while
diodes D2 and D4 are reverse biased. Therefore, only diodes D1 and D3 conduct. These two
diodes will be in series through the load RL as shown in Fig.1.11(i). It may be seen those
current flows from A to B through the load RL, During the negative half-cycle of secondary
voltage, end P becomes negative and end Q positive. This makes diodes D2 and D4 forward
biased whereas diodes D1and D3 are reverse biased. Therefore, only diodes D2 and D4
conduct. These two diodes will be in series through the load RL as shown in Fig.1.11(ii). It
may be seen that again current flows from A to B through the load i.e. in the same direction
as for the positive half-cycle.Therefore, d.c. output is obtained across load RL.

RTP
6|EEE-PART(A)

[5] Find the value of ripple factor of a full wave bridge rectifier.[***]
Ripple factor is the ratio of the AC component’s RMS value and the DC component’s RMS
value within the output of the rectifier.
Im
Irms =
√2
2Im
Idc =
π
Irms 2
We know the formula of R.F = √ ( ) -1
Idc

Substitute the above Irms & Idc in the above equation so we can get the following.
Im

R.F = √ ( √2 2
)
2Im -1 = 0.48
π

Here, from the above derivation, we can get the ripple factor of a full-wave rectifier is 0.48.

[6] Prove that the maximum efficiency of a full-wave bridge rectifier is 81.2%.[*]

RTP
7|EEE-PART(A)

[7] Explain the working principle of N-P-N transistor.[*]

Working of npn transistor: Fig.1.15 shows the npn transistor with forward bias to emitter-
base junction and reverse bias to collector-base junction. The forward bias causes the
electrons in the n-type emitter to flow towards the base. This constitutes the emitter current
IE. As these electrons flow through the p-type base, they tend to combine with holes. As the
base is lightly doped and very thin, therefore, only a few electrons (less than 5%) combine
with holes to constitute base current IB. The remainder (more than 95%) cross over into the
collector region to constitute collector current IC. In this way, almost the entire emitter
current flows in the collector circuit. It is clear that emitter current is the sum of collector and
base currents i.e. IE =IB + IC

[8] How does the transistor circuit act as an amplifier?[***]

A transistor raises the strength of a weak signal and thus acts as an amplifier. Fig.1.18 shows
the basic circuit of a transistor amplifier. The weak signal is applied between emitter-base
junction and output is taken across the load RC connected in the collector circuit. In order to
achieve faithful amplification, the input circuit should always remain forward biased. To do
so, a d.c. voltage VEE is applied in the input circuit in addition to the signal as shown. This
d.c. voltage is known as bias voltage and its magnitude is such that it always keeps the input
circuit forward biased regardless of the polarity of the signal. As the input circuit has low
resistance, therefore, a small change in signal voltage causes an appreciable change in emitter
current. This causes almost the same change in collector current due to transistor action. The
collector current flowing through a high load resistance RC produces a large voltage across it.
Thus, a weak signal applied in the input circuit appears in the amplified form in the collector
circuit. It is in this way that a transistor acts as an amplifier.

RTP
8|EEE-PART(A)

[9] Explain the operation of a transistor as an amplifier and also write down its application in
textile industry.[***]
A transistor raises the strength of a weak signal and thus acts as an amplifier. Fig.1.18 shows
the basic circuit of a transistor amplifier. The weak signal is applied between emitter-base
junction and output is taken across the load RC connected in the collector circuit. In order to
achieve faithful amplification, the input circuit should always remain forward biased. To do
so, a d.c. voltage VEE is applied in the input circuit in addition to the signal as shown. This
d.c. voltage is known as bias voltage and its magnitude is such that it always keeps the input
circuit forward biased regardless of the polarity of the signal. As the input circuit has low
resistance, therefore, a small change in signal voltage causes an appreciable change in emitter
current. This causes almost the same change in collector current due to transistor action. The
collector current flowing through a high load resistance RC produces a large voltage across it.
Thus, a weak signal applied in the input circuit appears in the amplified form in the collector
circuit. It is in this way that a transistor acts as an amplifier.

Its application in textile industry -

• Load Cell Applied Systems : Receiving loads from a hoisting mechanism using multiple
load cells, the system detects the total weight, and then measures the real load after
subtracting the tare & high & low limit signals let you know overload and it makes the
system suitable for safety management of different textile processing sections.
• Monitoring Contents of Tanks : Weighing contents of each tank enables automation and
labor saving on mixing work in dyeing section.
• Measuring Press-fit Load : Compression load cell and an instrumentation amplifier are
used to measure and judge the load given through press-fitting air conditioning parts in
bale presser machine.
• Controlling Cloth Tension : In the textile industry, for the quality control, square load
cells and instrumentation amplifiers are used to measure cloth tension and to make the
tension uniform.
• Measuring bale Weight : In the textile industry, load cells and instrumentation amplifiers
are used to weigh the bagged material for the purpose of judging whether the weight is as
specified.
• Quality Control of products

RTP
9|EEE-PART(A)

[10] Explain the operation of a push-pull amplifier.[**]

Push-pull Amplifier is a type of power amplifier. It contains a pair of active devices such as a
complementary pair of transistors. Here one transistor supply’s the power to the load from the
positive power supply and the other sink’s the current from the load to the ground.

The Class-A amplifier contains two identical transistors Q1 and Q2. The emitter terminals of
these two transistors are connected together. Resistors R1 and R2 are used for biasing the
transistors. One transistor has to be forward-biased during the positive half-cycle of the signal
while the other during negative half-cycle. The collector terminals of these two transistors are
connected to the two ends of the primary winding of the output transformer T2. The base
ends of these two transistors are connected to the secondary winding of the input transformer
T1. The power supply is connected between the center tap of the primary of T2 and the
emitter junction of the Q1, Q2.The load is attached to the secondary of the transformer T2.
The quiescent current from Q1 and Q2 flows in the opposite direction through the halves of
the primary of T2. This cancels out the magnetic saturation in the circuit.

[11] How does the transistor circuit act as a switch?

Both the NPN & PNP type bipolar transistors can be made to operate as “ON/OFF” type solid
state switch by biasing the transistors Base terminal differently to that for a signal amplifier.
The areas of operation for a transistor switch are known as the Saturation Region and the Cut-
off Region.
Cut-off Region
Here the operating conditions of the transistor are zero input base current ( IB ), zero output
collector current ( IC ) and maximum collector voltage ( VCE ) which results in a large
depletion layer and no current flowing through the device. Therefore, the transistor is
switched “Fully-OFF”.

Then we can define the “cut-off region” or “OFF mode” when using a bipolar transistor as a
switch as being, both junctions reverse biased, VB < 0.7v and IC = 0. For a PNP transistor,
the Emitter potential must be negative with respect to the Base.
Saturation Region
RTP
10 | E E E - P A R T ( A )

Here the transistor will be biased so that the maximum amount of base current is applied,
resulting in maximum collector current resulting in the minimum collector emitter voltage
drop which results in the depletion layer being as small as possible and maximum current
flowing through the transistor. Therefore, the transistor is switched “Fully-ON”.

Then we can define the “saturation region” or “ON mode” when using a bipolar transistor as
a switch as being, both junctions forward biased, VB > 0.7v and IC = Maximum. For a PNP
transistor, the Emitter potential must be positive with respect to the Base.

[12] Describe the block diagram of a cathode ray oscilloscope[****]

A basic block diagram of a general-purpose oscilloscope is shown in figure. The instrument employs
a cathode ray tube (CRT), which is the heart of the oscilloscope. It generates the electron beam,
accelerates the beam to a high velocity, deflects the beam to create the image, and contains a phosphor
screen where the electron beam eventually becomes visible. For accomplishing these tasks various
electrical signals and voltages are required, which are provided by the power supply circuit of the
oscilloscope. Low voltage supply is required for the heater of the electron gun for generation of
electron beam and high voltage, of the order of few thousand volts, is required for cathode ray tube to
accelerate the beam. Normal voltage supply, say a few hundred volts, is required for other control
circuits of the oscilloscope.Horizontal and vertical deflection plates are fitted between electron gun
and screen to deflect the beam according to input signal. Electron beam strikes the screen and creates
a visible spot. This spot is deflected on the screen in horizontal direction (X-axis) with constant time
dependent rate. This is accomplished by a time base circuit provided in the oscilloscope. The signal to
be viewed is supplied to the vertical deflection plates through the vertical amplifier, which raises the
potential of the input signal to a level that will provide usable deflection of the electron beam. Now
electron beam deflects in two directions, horizontal on X-axis and vertical on Y-axis. A triggering
circuit is provided for synchronizing two types of deflections so that horizontal deflection starts at the
same point of the input vertical signal each time it sweeps.

RTP
11 | E E E - P A R T ( A )

[13] What is E-Textiles? Write down the applications of smart textiles.

E-textiles, also known as smart garments, smart clothing, electronic textiles, smart textiles, or
smart fabrics, are fabrics that enable digital components (including small computers), and
electronics to be embedded in them. We can say that electronic textiles (e-textiles) are fabrics
that have electronics and interconnections woven into them.Components and interconnections
are intrinsic to the fabric.
Applications of E-textiles
There are lots of scopes and application is going on around the globe in the recent area due to
its state-of-art andportable quality. Some of these are:

1. Gore-Tex Smart Fabric

It has the capability of letting moisture flow in one direction. The fabric membrane contains
Ten billion pores density per square inch. Therefore, it allows perspiration and water vapor to
escape from the body. This property makes it waterproof, windproof as well as
breathable.Additionally, Gore-Tex Smart Fabric repels insects that can affect the membrane.
2. Smart Running Shoes & Socks
The smart shoes consist of a sensor, microprocessor, electric motor, and the actual smart
electronic textile material. It can adjust its cushioning system. The latest smart socks and
shoes uses a lot of special sensors that can track the wears’ interactive activities. It can
communicate to android devices with information. Via the android applications, the wearer
can receive the information on running conditions, speed, total distance run, and other data to
his mobile.
3. Smart Bra
The smart bra is one of the best examples of smart clothing as well as the most useful
application of smart textiles. It improves overall bra wear comforts to the womenThis smart
bra can change its properties in response to breast movement. The Smart bra is effective in
preventing breast pain and sag by tightening and loosening its straps or stiffening
as well as relaxing its cups to restrict breast motion
4. Motion Detecting Smart Pants
smart pant is that its smart fabric can sense the movement, rotation, speed, and location of the
wearer. Developed smart fabric stored detailed data about the movement to a cloud system by
sending a wireless signal.
5. NASA AeroGel Jacket
NASA invented the Aerogel component is the best insulation material for smart clothing. Its
very weight, low density, and often translucent appearance. Aero gels are often called solid
smoke. It has flexible nature manufacturing textile blankets, beads, thin sheets, and molded
parts. Therefore, the products are not heavy and bulky.
6. Smart Baby Vest
The smart baby vest equips with microchips and sensors. It can be continuous monitoring of
vital issues. Such as heart, lungs, as well as body temperature. As a result, doctors can easily
detect heart circulatory illnesses. It’s already applied to prevent a baby’s cot death.
7. Smart Fire Fighter Jacket
It integrates with thermal sensors as well as the interior and exterior layers of the coat. So that
inside of the coat which is close to the body can control the high temperature near the fire-
fighter. The smart firefighter jacket contains microelectronics chips that help to indicate the
hazardous condition with the LED display. For Different temperatures, LED displayed
different hazardous alarms to firefighters.

RTP
12 | E E E - P A R T ( A )

8. Smart Textiles in Fashion Industry

In this modern era people’s daily tech-friendly lifestyle boosting the application of smart
textiles in the fashion industry. People adopt much other smart clothing just because of
fashion to be smart. The ICD+ jacket was the first wearable device as well as a washable
smart jacket. Smart shocks generate the same amount of heat which is equal to the rate of
heat loss. This innovation makes a revolutionary change in the segment of smart textiles in
sportswear.

[14] Depicts a smart suit with electronics and sensors for patient monitoring.

This paper describes a smart suit with sensors and electronics for monitoring patients at
hydrotherapy sessions in swimming-pools. The smart suit allows the monitoring of the heart
rate, patient posture and activity level. The sensors input is converted in a PWM using a V-F
converter. A robust, low-voltage (3.0 V) and low-power electronic wireless CMOS RF
interface was implemented at 433 MHz using ASK modulation. The monitoring electrodes,
the sensors and the electronics are sewed in the textile material (e.g. neoprene, usually used in
diving suits) achieving a good skin contact. The sensors are plugged into the suit around
patient’s chest and abdomen, which allows to measure the heart rate, movement and
temperature of the patient body and swimming-pool water temperature. Thus, a single
channel measures heart rate; a 2-axis accelerometer senses patient posture and activity level;
and a network of CMOS temperature sensors distributed in the suit is used for monitoring the
body and water temperature. The microsystem has the look and feel of typical garments
(Fig. 1) and can be tossed into the washing machine. A RF transceiver operating at 433 MHz,
with ASK modulation, was fabricated in 0.7 μm CMOS process (with 2 metals and 1
polysilicon layer) . The radio signals are sent through a commercial half-wave dipole wire
antenna, mounted on the cap. A 3 V battery is required for the transceiver. A block-diagram
of the transceiver is depicted in Fig. 3. The 433 MHz carrier frequency is generated by a
phase-looked-loop (PLL) in transmitter section. The reference signal of the PLL is generated
by a crystal oscillator working at 13.86 MHz. The sensors input is connected to a voltage-
frequency converter (V-F converter) in order to achieve a digital PWM. This digital signal is
modulated at ASK and is further amplified by a switched class E power amplifier. The
receiver (used for configuration and calibration of the sensors) was implemented with super-
regenerative architecture. As depicted on Fig. 3, the receiver includes an oscillator, two
buffers, a quenching amplifier and an envelope detector as demodulator. The quenching
network supervises the super-regeneration phenomena and the output of the receiver is
transmitted through a bit steam.

RTP
13 | E E E - P A R T ( A )

[15] Characteristics of a silicon controlled rectifiers.[***]

A thyristor is a four-layer semiconductor device of p-n-p-n structure with three p-n junctions.
It has three terminals: anode(A), cathode(C) and a gate (G). Figure (1) shows the thyristor
symbol and the sectional view of the three p-n junctions.

Latching Current (IL): This is the minimum anode current required to maintain the thyristor
in the on-state immediately after a thyristor has been turned on and the gate signal has been
removed. If a gate current, greater than the threshold gate current is applied until the anode
current is greater than the latching current IL then the thyristor will be turned on or triggered.
Holding Current (IH): This is the minimum anode current required to maintain the thyristor
in the on state. To turn off a thyristor, the forward anode current must be reduced below its
holding current for a sufficient time for mobile charge carriers to vacate the junction. If the
anode current is not maintained below IH for long enough, the thyristor will not have
returned to the fully blocking state by the time the anode-to-cathode voltage rises again. It
might then return to the conducting state without an externally applied gate current.
Reverse Current (IR): When the cathode voltage is positive with respect to the anode, the
junction J2 is forward biased but junctions J1 and J3 are reverse biased. The thyristor is said

RTP
14 | E E E - P A R T ( A )

to be in the reverse blocking state and a reverse leakage current known as reverse current IR
will flow through the device.
Forward Break-over Voltage (VBO) : If the forward voltage VAK is increased beyond
VBO, the thyristor can be turned on. However, such a turn-on could be destructive. In
practice, the forward voltage is maintained below VBO and the thyristor is turned on by
applying a positive gate signal between gate and cathode. Once the thyristor is turned on by a
gate signal and its anode current is greater than the holding current, the device continues to
conduct due to positive feedback even if the gate signal is removed. This is because the
thyristor is a latching device and it has been latched to the on state.

[16] Section of a push-pull amplifier.[*]

A push-pull amplifier is a type of electronic amplifier that uses two active devices (usually
transistors) working together to produce an amplified output signal. The basic principle
behind a push-pull amplifier is that each device amplifies half of the input signal, and the two
halves are then combined to produce a full amplified output signal.The push-pull amplifier
consists of three main sections:
Input section: The input section of the push-pull amplifier receives the input signal and
prepares it for amplification. This section typically includes a coupling capacitor and possibly
a biasing network.
Amplification section: The amplification section is where the two active devices work
together to amplify the signal. Each device is responsible for amplifying half of the input
signal. In a push-pull amplifier, one device amplifies the positive half of the input signal,
while the other device amplifies the negative half. This section may include components such
as resistors and capacitors to stabilize the operation of the amplifier.
Output section: The output section of the push-pull amplifier combines the amplified
positive and negative halves of the input signal to produce a full amplified output signal. This
section typically includes an output transformer, which is used to couple the output signal to
the load (such as a speaker or another amplifier).

RTP
15 | E E E - P A R T ( A )

SENSOR & TRANSDUCER

[1] What is sensor? Write down the application of sensor technology in textiles.[*****]
Sensor is a device used to generate an equivalent electrical signal, either in the form of
voltage or current, if a non-electrical physical quantity is applied to it. Example: A light
dependent resistor (LDR) is a sensor in which the resistance changes if the intensity of light is
changed.
Application of sensor technology in textiles -

In this modern technology era sensor is widely used in all branch of the textile industry, at all
of the departments. Without applying of sensor technology efficiency of the machine will be
decrease, wastage will be increase and overall cost will be increase. Besides, accident can be
occurred without using sensor in textile machine. Without machinery, textile sensor systems
are capable of capturing comprehensive physiologic data from the body and are designed to
be seamlessly integrated into everyday garments. Wearable monitoring provides a
comfortable and user-friendly way to obtain body data measurements to assist consumers in
managing their top wellness concerns of weight loss, physical health and energy level.
Textronics sells sensor components and markets its own line of clothes for personal
monitoring under the brand name NuMetrex™.
In Textile, two types of Sensors are used-
i)Capacitive Sensor &
ii)Optical Sensor.
Optical Sensor is divided into two types:
1. One Dimensional Optical Sensor,
2. Two-Dimensional Optical Sensor.
Capacitive Sensor: Capacitive Sensor is used for determination of mass variation. In textile
spinning industry, the Capacitive sensor is widely used in order to determine the production
parameters. By taking the calculation result from the capacitive sensor, some of the spinning
machines are to be set up.
Optical Sensor: Optical sensor is used for determination of diameter variation. It has
advantages with regard to visual appearance of the yarn.
One dimensional sensor comes to very close to observation of human eye; whereas, two-
dimensional Optical sensor offers advantages for the determination of the roundness and the
density of the Yarn.
The other major sensors are: Proximity Sensors, Inductive Sensor, Namur Sensors, Field
Plate/Hall Sensors, Photo Electric Sensors, Sensors & Electronic module for textile -
Indigenous /Imported Machines, Connector & cable assembly and Peripheral & Relay Units,
Certified Zener Barriers, Field Programmable smart Sensors for which WIPO patent is
pending. Sensor is used in all kind of textile machineries but widely used in machines such as
Air Jet Loom, Auto Coner 138, 238 / Auto Coro, Carding, Drawing Frame, Pre-Winder,
Rapier Loom, Projectile Loom, Staubli Dobby 2605, P 7100, PU 85, PU 153, GTM Loom,
Omni Loom, Ring Frame etc.
Now a days, sensor is widely used in smart textile. So, we must have to know about the
Sensor technology and it’s operating and working procedure to become a
good textile engineer.

RTP
16 | E E E - P A R T ( A )

[2] Explain the difference between sensor and transducer.[***]

Basis of
Sensor Transducer
Difference

A sensor is a device which converts the A transducer is a device that

physical parameter of a quantity into transforms energy from one
Definition
corresponding electrical output. form to another, such as speed
into electrical signal.

A sensor does not have any other The components of a transducer

component except itself. are − input device (sensor),
Main
processing device (signal
components
conditioning), and output
device.

All the sensors are not transducers. A sensor is the part of all the
Dependency
transducers.

A sensor is less complicated in its Transducer is a relatively more

construction and processing. complex device because it
Complexity involves the transformation of
energy from one form to
another.

A sensor detects the change in the Transducer converts the energy

physical parameter of quantity to into a different form.
Function
produce corresponding electrical
signal.

Sensor does not provide any feedback Transducer generally provides a

to the system. Which means, it only feedback to the system through
Feedback measures the change in the physical the output device after
quantity and cannot give input to the processing.
system on its own.

Common examples of sensor are: Examples of transducers are:

temperature sensor, photo sensor, strain gauge, microphone, loud
Examples
proximity sensor, etc. speaker, piezoelectric element,
etc.

[3] Define the following terms: sensitivity, resolution, accuracy, precision, calibration and
compensation.
Sensitivity: A ratio of the amount of change in output signal resulting from an amount of
change in the input measurand.

RTP
17 | E E E - P A R T ( A )

Resolution: This specification is the smallest detectable incremental change of input

parameter that can be detected in the output signal. Resolution can be expressed either as a
proportion of the reading (or the full-scale reading) or in absolute terms.
Accuracy: The degree to which a measurement agrees with the standard or desired amount,
sometimes expressed as an amount of error as a percent of full‐range output. It is a general
term and should not be used in a specification. A specification should list errors or
inaccuracies instead.
Precision: The concept of precision refers to the degree of reproducibility of a measurement.
In other words, if exactly the same value were measured a number of times, an ideal sensor
would output exactly the same value every time.
Calibration: A test during which a series of known measurand values are applied to a sensor
so that adjustments can be made to the sensor in order to minimize errors.
Compensation: The addition of circuitry or the application of an algorithm to measurement
data in order to counteract undesired influences or tendencies. For example, a position sensor
that has undesired thermal sensitivity may be compensated to make it less temperature
sensitive; a position sensor that has a nonlinear position response can be compensated to be
less nonlinear.

[4] Describe the architecture of a textile based capacitive pressure sensor.[*]

The textile sensor consists of a basic three-layer structure and forms a variable capacitor.
Two electrodes made of conductive textile. Single electrodes are arranged on one side of the
spacer as an array and the other side consists of one common electrode, which forms the
capacitors between each electrode and the common electrode. A compressible spacer like
foam is arranged that varies its thickness dependent on the pressure induced. The spacer
between the electrodes defines the pressure range and the resolution of the sensor. The
capacitance C of a parallel-plate capacitor of area A is inverse proportional to the distance d
between the plates (electrodes) at a given permittivity ɛ of the material between the plates.

𝐴
C=ɛ ……………….. (i)
𝑑

Fig.1: Textile based capacitive pressure sensor

The single electrodes are embroidered with conductive yarn. The common electrode consists
of a silvercoated woven textile. Additional layers of conductive textile are arranged covering
both sides of the array for shielding purposes. A replaceable spacer enhances the flexibility of
the sensor system since the spacer can be chosen according to the desired range and
resolution. When selecting the spacer, the focus can be set to criteria such as pressure range,
comfort (textile feeling, breathable), and robustness, instead of having good linearity due
to the modeling.

RTP
18 | E E E - P A R T ( A )

[5] How Hall Effect sensor can be used as a theft prevention device for merchandise?
The Hall effect sensor has a broad range of applications that are often quite interesting and
innovative. The most widespread is as a trigger for an alarm system in large department
stores, where theft is often a difficult problem. A magnetic strip attached to the merchandise
sounds an alarm when a customer passes through the exit gates without paying for the
product. The sensor, control current, and monitoring system are housed in the exit fence and
react to the presence of the magnetic field as the product leaves the store. When the product is
paid for, the cashier removes the strip or demagnetizes the strip by applying a magnetizing
force that reduces the residual magnetism in the strip to essentially zero.

[51] How Hall Effect Sensor can be Used to Indicate the Speed of a Bicycle?

The Hall effect sensor is also used to indicate the speed of a bicycle on a digital display
conveniently mounted on the handlebars. The sensor is mounted on the frame of the bike, and
a small permanent magnet is mounted on a spoke of the front wheel. The magnet must be
carefully mounted to be sure that it passes over the proper region of the sensor. When the
magnet passes over the sensor, the flux pattern in Fig. 11.51 results, and a voltage with a
sharp peak is developed by the sensor. Assuming a bicycle with a 26-in.-diameter wheel, the
circumference will be about 82 in. Over 1 mi, the number of rotations is

If the bicycle is traveling at 20 mph, an output pulse will occur at a rate of 4.29 per second. It
is interesting to note that at a speed of 20 mph, the wheel is rotating at more than 4
revolutions per second, and the total number of rotations over 20 mi is 15,460.

Fig. 11.51

[6] How pressure can be measured using strain gauge?

The strain gauge is connected into a wheatstone bridge circuit as shown in the diagram. The
complete wheatstone bridge is excited with power supply and with additional conditioning
electronics, can be zeroed at the null point of measurement. Typically, the rheostat arm R2 of
the bridge is set at a value equal to the strain gauge resistance with no force applied. The two
ratio arms of the bridge (R1 and R3) are set equal to each other. Thus, with no force applied
to the strain gauge, the bridge will be symmetrically balanced and the voltmeter will indicate
zero volts, representing zero force on the strain gauge. As the strain gauge is either

RTP
19 | E E E - P A R T ( A )

compressed or tensed, its resistance will decrease or increase, respectively, thus unbalancing
the bridge and producing an indication at the voltmeter. By this method pressure in calculated
through strain gauge.

[61] How speed using DC techogenerator?

The DC tachometer generator can be used for speed measurement. The armature of the
tachometer is kept in the permanent magnetic field. The armature is coupled to the machine
whose speed is to be measured. When the shaft of the machine revolves, the armature of the
tachometer revolves in the magnetic field producing EMF which is proportional to the
product of the flux and speed to be measured. Now as the field of the permanent field is
fixed, the EMF generated is proportional to the speed directly. The EMF induced is measured
using moving coil voltmeter with uniform scale calibrated in speed directly. By this way
speed is calculated through techogenerator.

[7] What is the function of color sensor? Explain the working principle of colour sensor.
A colour sensor is a type of "photoelectric sensor" which emits light from a transmitter, and
then detects the light reflected back from the detection object with a receiver. A colour sensor
can detect the received light intensity for red, blue and green respectively, making it possible
to determine the colour of the target object.
Working Principle of Color Sensor
There are two types of colour sensors. One illuminates the object with broad wavelength light
and differentiates the three types of colour in the receiver. The other type illuminates the
object with the three types of light (red, blue, and green) independently. In both scenarios, the
received light intensity of red, blue and green are detected, and the ratio of light received is
calculated.
If light containing the red, blue, and green wavelengths is shown on a red object, only red
light will be reflected.

The white circle in the diagram represents a white light source. For a white object, all three
colours of red, blue, and green are reflected.

The ratio of the red, green, and blue reflections vary according to the colour of the object. By
calculating the ratio of the intensity of the red, green, and blue light received, it is possible to
distinguish
differences in the colour or appearance of the object.

RTP
20 | E E E - P A R T ( A )

[8] What are the applications of noise sensor in the textiles industry?
The noise sensor is also known as a noise level sensor or sound sensor. It is one type of
module used to notice the sound. Generally, this module is used to detect the intensity of
sound.
• The noise sensor doesn't record sounds but monitors changes in the noise level in the
environment.
• The noise sensors can be widely used in industrial noise measurement of various
machines, vehicles, ships, electrical appliances, etc., and can also be used in
environmental noise, labor protection, and industrial hygiene measurement.
[9] Explain the working principle of thermistor in a practical circuit.[*]
Initially, thermistor is placed in the environment whose temperature is to be measured. Then,
thermistor is connected in a series simple circuit consisting of battery and micro-ammeter as
shown below. Any change in temperature causes a change in resistance of thermistor. Hence,
corresponding change in circuit current. By directly calibrating micro-ammeter in terms of
temperature, we can measure temperature.

[10] List the different types of photo sensor. Describe the function of any one type of torque
measurement process.[*]
A photoelectric sensor is a device that detects a difference in the light level received from the
light source. The sensor is made up of a light source, an amplifier, signal converter, and an
output.
There are three major types of photoelectric sensors :
• Thru-beam
• Retroreflective
• Diffused.
Function of torque measurement process :

A strain gauge converts torque into an electrical signal. The sensor is bonded to a rotating shaft
that deforms when a torque is applied. Generally, four strain gauges are attached to the rotating
shaft in the form of a Wheatstone bridge circuit. They are placed precisely at 45 degrees with
the shaft axis with gauge 1 and 3 being diametrically opposite, as must gauge 2 and 4. When
torque is applied to the shaft, the shaft gets twisted to the direction of rotation, thereby
producing shear strain. This causes elongation in gauges 1 and 3 and compression in gauges 2
and 4. These changes in the strain gauges lead to an increase in the circuit resistance due to
tensile strain generated by one pair of gauges and a decrease in the circuit resistance due to the
RTP
21 | E E E - P A R T ( A )

compression strain generated by the other pair. This results in an unbalanced bridge, which
produces an electrical output corresponding to the applied torque.However, measuring torque
on a rotating shaft using strain gauges is impactful only when the gauge is operated in a low-
to-moderate rotating speed.
[11] Describe the functions, working principle and applications of (i) Strain gauge (ii) RTD
(iii) Piezoelectric effect (iv) Light dependent resistor (LDR) (v) Thermistor[***]
(i) Strain Gauge:
Function: A strain gauge is a type of sensor that measures the strain or deformation of an
object when subjected to mechanical force or pressure. It converts the applied force into an
electrical signal that can be measured and used for various applications.
Working Principle: A strain gauge is typically made of a thin wire or foil that is bonded to a
material or structure undergoing deformation. When the material or structure is subjected to
strain, the dimensions of the strain gauge change, causing a change in its resistance. This
change in resistance is proportional to the applied strain, and it can be measured using a
Wheatstone bridge circuit or other measurement techniques to determine the magnitude of the
strain.
Applications: Strain gauges are widely used in various fields such as engineering, aerospace,
automotive, civil structures, and biomechanics for applications such as load sensing, stress
analysis, pressure measurement, and deformation monitoring. They are commonly used in
weighing scales, pressure sensors, force sensors, and structural health monitoring systems.
(ii) RTD (Resistance Temperature Detector):
Function: An RTD is a type of temperature sensor that measures temperature by correlating
the resistance of the RTD element with temperature. It is based on the principle that the
electrical resistance of certain materials changes with temperature in a known and repeatable
manner.
Working Principle: An RTD typically consists of a thin wire made of a pure metal, such as
platinum, wound into a coil or deposited on a ceramic substrate. As the temperature changes,
the resistance of the RTD element also changes in a known and linear manner. This change in
resistance is measured using a Wheatstone bridge circuit or other measurement techniques to
determine the temperature.
Applications: RTDs are commonly used in industrial and scientific applications where
precise and accurate temperature measurement is required. They are used in process control
systems, HVAC systems, temperature calibration equipment, and scientific research where
high accuracy and stability are critical.
(iii) Piezoelectric Effect:
Function: The piezoelectric effect is a phenomenon where certain materials generate an
electric charge when subjected to mechanical stress or pressure. Piezoelectric materials can
convert mechanical energy into electrical energy or vice versa.

RTP
22 | E E E - P A R T ( A )

Working Principle: When a piezoelectric material is subjected to mechanical stress or

pressure, it causes a displacement of charge within the material, resulting in the generation of
an electric charge across the material. This charge can be measured and used for various
applications, such as sensing, actuation, and energy harvesting.
Applications: The piezoelectric effect is used in various applications, such as pressure
sensors, accelerometers, ultrasonic transducers, piezoelectric motors, and energy harvesting
devices. It is widely used in industries such as automotive, aerospace, healthcare, and
consumer electronics.
(iv) Light Dependent Resistor (LDR):
Function: An LDR is a type of resistor whose resistance changes with the intensity of light
falling on it. It is used as a light sensor to measure the ambient light level or detect changes in
light intensity.
Working Principle: An LDR is typically made of a semiconductor material that exhibits a
decrease in resistance when exposed to light. The resistance of the LDR changes
proportionally with the intensity of light, with higher light intensity resulting in lower
resistance, and vice versa. This change in resistance can be measured and used for various
applications.
Applications: LDRs are commonly used in applications such as street lighting control,
photography light meters, burglar alarms, and outdoor lighting control. They are also used in
consumer electronics, automotive lighting, and industrial automation for light sensing and
contrFunction: A thermistor is a temperature sensor that measures temperature by correlating
the resistance of the thermistor element with temperature. It is used for accurate temperature
measurement in various applications.
v) Thermistor
Working Principle: Thermistors exhibit a change in resistance with temperature. There are
two types: Negative Temperature Coefficient (NTC) thermistors, which show a decrease in
resistance with an increase in temperature, and Positive Temperature Coefficient (PTC)
thermistors, which show an increase in resistance with an increase in temperature.

Applications: Thermistors are used in temperature control and monitoring systems, medical
devices, automotive applications, appliances, industrial processes, and energy management
systems. They are suitable for applications that require precise and accurate temperature
measurement and control due to their small size, high sensitivity, and fast response time. ol
purposes

[12] What are the difference thermocouples, RTDs, thermistors and infrared devices?
Thermocouples generally can measure temperatures over wide temperature ranges,
inexpensively, and are very rugged, but they are not as accurate or stable as RTD’s and
thermistors. RTD’s are stable and have a fairly wide temperature range, but are not as rugged
and inexpensive as thermocouples. Since they require the use of electric current to make

RTP
23 | E E E - P A R T ( A )

measurements, RTD’s are subject to inaccuracies from self-heating. Thermistors tend to be

more accurate than RTD’s or thermocouples, but they have a much more limited temperature
range. They are also subject to selfheating. Infrared Sensors can be used to measure
temperatures higher than any of the other devices and do so without direct contact with the
surfaces being measured. However, they are generally not as accurate and are sensitive to
surface radiation efficiency (or more precisely, surface emissivity). Using fiber optic cables,
they can measure surfaces that are not within a direct line of sight.

[13] List various types of proximity sensor. How can you select a suitable proximity sensor
based on application?
Types of Proximity Sensor

i) Inductive Proximity Sensors

ii) Capacitive Proximity Sensors
iii) Ultrasonic Proximity Sensors
iv) IR Proximity Sensor
Selection of a suitable proximity sensor based on application -

RTP
24 | E E E - P A R T ( A )

ELECTRICAL MACHINE

[1] What are the properties of ferromagnetic materials?[*****]

Those materials which when placed in a magnetic field are strongly magnetized in the
direction of the applied field are called ferromagnetic material. Example: iron, nickel, cobalt
etc. Ferromagnetism is the property of a material to be strongly attracted to a magnetic field
and to become a powerful magnet. Ferromagnetic materials have following properties:

• A ferromagnetic material is strongly attracted by a magnet.

• In ferromagnetic materials, the magnetic lines of forces due to the applied magnetic field
are strongly attracted towards the material.
• When a rod of ferromagnetic substance is suspended freely in a uniform magnetic field, it
quickly aligns itself in the direction of the applied field.
• When a ferromagnetic substance is placed in a non-uniform magnetic field, it movers
from weaker to stronger regions of magnetic field.
• All ferromagnetic materials become paramagnetic above a temperature called Curie
temperature.
• The relative permeability (μr) is greater than 1(one).
• Magnetic susceptibility is large and positive.
• Magnetic susceptibility decreases with the rise in temperature according to Curie-Weiss
law.
• The source of ferromagnetism is the spin of the electrons.
• Ferromagnetic materials like Fe, Co, Ni have incomplete inner shells. These shells can be
completed by using Hund’s rule.
• When the specimen of a ferromagnetic material is magnetized by gradually increasing the
magnetizing fields, then the change of magnetic flux through the material is not
continuous but in small discrete steps. Along the steep portion of the M-H magnetization
curve, the discontinuous rotation of the magnetic domains give rise to Barkhauszen effect.

[2] Define the following terms: magnetic field strength (H), magnetic potential (M) and flux
density (B).[*]

Magnetic Field Strength(H): Magnetic field strength is also magnetic field intensity or
magnetic intensity. It is represented as vector H and is defined as the ratio of the MMF
needed to create a certain Flux Density (B) within a particular material per unit length of that
material. Magnetic field intensity is measured in units of amperes/metre.
It is given by the formula:
𝐵
H= −𝑀
μ
B = magnetic flux density
M= magnetization
μ = magnetic permeability

The SI unit of magnetic field intensity is Tesla. One tesla (1 T) is defined as the field
intensity generating one newton of force per ampere of current per metre of conductor.
RTP
25 | E E E - P A R T ( A )

Magnetic potential(M)/Magnetomotive Force (mmf): It is the external force or pressure

required to set up the magnetic flux lines within the magnetic material. The magnetomotive
force,
F=NI
The unit is At (Ampere-turn).

Flux Density: The number of flux lines per unit area is called the flux density ( B).

Ф
𝐵=
𝐴
B=Teslas(T)
Ф =Webers (Wb)
A=Square meters (m2)
1T=1Wb/m2

[3] Why eddy current loss and hysteresis loss are produced in electrical machines and how
can these losses be reduced?[*********]

Eddy current loss and hysteresis loss are two types of losses that can occur in a DC machine.

Eddy current loss occurs when alternating currents are induced in the core of the machine
due to changes in the magnetic field. These currents, known as eddy currents, produce heat,
which results in energy loss. To reduce eddy current loss, the core of the machine is
typically made of laminated sheets of silicon steel.
Hysteresis loss occurs when the magnetic domains in the core of the machine are repeatedly
rotated and aligned with the changing magnetic field. This process also produces heat, which
results in energy loss. To reduce hysteresis loss, the core of the machine is typically made of
materials with low coercive force, such as permalloy or mumetal.
Both of these types of loss result in an increase in the temperature of the machine and a
decrease in its efficiency. To minimize these losses, the machine's design should take into
account the properties of the core materials and how they will interact with the changing
magnetic field.

RTP
26 | E E E - P A R T ( A )

[4] State and explain the Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction.[********]

First Law: Whenever the magnetic flux linked with a circuit changes, an e.m.f. is always
induced in it. Or whenever a conductor cuts magnetic flux, an e.m.f. is induced in that
conductor.
Second Law: The magnitude of the induced e.m.f. is equal to the rate of change of flux
linkages.
Explanation: Suppose a coil has N turns and flux through it changes from an initial value of
Φ1 webers to the
final value of Φ2 webers in time t seconds. Then, remembering that by flux-linkages mean the
product of number
of turns and the flux linked with the coil.
Initial flux linkages = NΦ1
Final flux linkages = NΦ2
Induced e.m.f.,
𝑁𝛷1− 𝑁𝛷2) 𝑁(𝛷1− 𝛷2)
E= =
𝑡 𝑡

Putting the above expression in its differential form, we get

𝑑𝛷
E=N 𝑑𝑡

Usually, a minus sign is given to the right-hand side expression to signify the fact that the
induced e.m.f. sets up current in such a direction that magnetic effect produced by it opposes
the very cause producing it.
𝑑𝛷
E = - N 𝑑𝑡

[5] Derive the equations of the alternating voltages and current.[********]

Consider a rectangular coil, having N turns and rotating in a uniform magnetic field, with an
angular velocity of ω radian/second, as shown in Fig.(a).

Let time be measured from the X-axis. Maximum flux Φm is linked with the coil, when its
plane coincides with the X-axis. In time t seconds, this coil rotates through an angle θ=ωt. In
this deflected position, the component of the flux which is perpendicular to the plane of the
coil, is

Φ = ΦmCosωt.

RTP
27 | E E E - P A R T ( A )

Hence, flux linkages of the coil at any time are,

NΦ = NΦmCosωt

According to Faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic Induction, the e.m.f. induced in the

coil is given by the rate of change of flux-linkages of the coil. Hence, the value of the induced
e.m.f. at this instant
(i.e. when θ=ωt) or the instantaneous value of the induced e.m.f. is

When the coil has turned through 90º i.e. when θ = 90º, then sin θ = 1, hence e has maximum
value, say Em. Therefore, from Eq. (i) we get

Em=ωNΦm=ωNBmA=2πfNBmA ………………………..(ii)

Where, Bm = maximum flux density in Wb/m2 , A = area of the coil in m2, f = frequency of
rotation of the coil in rev/second, Substituting this value of Em in Eq. (i), we get

e(t)=Em Sinθ=EmSinωt …………………......................(iii)

Similarly, the equation of induced alternating current is

i(t)=ImSinωt ………….(iv)

provided the coil circuit has been closed through a resistive load.

[6] Derive the expression for force on a current-carrying conductor lying in a magnetic
field.[****]

When an electrical wire is exposed to a magnet, the current in that wire will be affected by a
magnetic field. The effect comes in the form of a force. The expression for magnetic force on
current can be found by summing the magnetic force on each of the many individual charges
that comprise the current. Since they all run in the same direction, the forces can be added.

The force (F) of a magnetic field (B) exerts on an individual charge (q) traveling at drift
velocity vd is:

F=NqvdBSinθ
RTP
28 | E E E - P A R T ( A )

Given that N=nV, where n is the number of charge carriers per unit volume and V is volume
of the wire, and that this volume is calculated as the product of the circular cross-sectional
area (A) and length (L) yields the equation:

F=nVqvdBSinθ
F=nALqvdBSinθ
F=(nqAvd)LBSinθ

The terms in parentheses are equal to current (I= nqAvd), and thus the equation can be
rewritten as:

F=ILBSinθ
In vector form,

[7] Derive the expression for magnetic field strength of a long solenoid.[**]

Consider a long solenoid with N number of turns per unit length (n) and length L, carrying a
current I. We want to find the magnetic field strength (B) at a point inside the solenoid along
its axis.
We can start by applying Ampere's law on the loop,

∮ B ∙ dl = μ₀ × Itotal

Where,
B = Magnetic field,
μ₀ = Permeability,
Itotal = Total current passing through the loop

For a long solenoid, we can choose a closed loop that encloses only one turn of the solenoid.
The length of the closed loop is equal to the perimeter of the solenoid = 2πr
where r is the radius of the solenoid. Hence,

∮ B ∙ dl = B × 2πr

The total current passing through the closed loop is the product of the number of turns per
unit length (n) and the length of the closed loop (2πr), which is equal to:

Itotal = n × 2πr

Substituting these values into Ampere's law, we get:

B * 2πr = μ₀ × n × 2πr

Simplifying and rearranging for the magnetic field strength (B), we obtain:

B = μ₀ × n × I

RTP
29 | E E E - P A R T ( A )

[8] Describe the basic principle of AC voltage generation in a generator.[*****]

The basic principle of AC (Alternating Current) voltage generation in a generator is based on

Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction, which states that a changing magnetic field
induces an electromotive force (EMF) in a coil of wire. In an AC generator, the magnetic
field changes direction periodically, resulting in the generation of alternating current.

The main components of an AC generator include a coil of wire, known as an armature, and a
source of magnetic field, which can be provided by permanent magnets or electromagnets.
The basic principle of AC voltage generation in a generator can be explained in the following
steps:

Rotation of Armature: The armature, which is usually a set of windings or coils of wire, is
mechanically rotated within the magnetic field. This rotation can be achieved by an external
source of mechanical energy, such as a turbine or an engine. As the armature rotates, it cuts
through the lines of magnetic flux created by the magnetic field, which causes the magnetic
flux to change in strength and direction.

Induction of EMF: According to Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction, the changing

magnetic flux linked with the armature coil induces an electromotive force (EMF) in the coil.
The magnitude and direction of the induced EMF depend on the rate of change of the
magnetic flux, which is determined by the speed of rotation of the armature and the strength
of the magnetic field.

Alternating Current Generation: Since the magnetic field changes direction periodically as
the armature rotates, the induced EMF in the armature coil also changes direction
periodically. This results in the generation of an alternating current (AC) in the armature coil.
The direction of the current changes periodically, typically following a sinusoidal waveform,
with the frequency of the AC determined by the speed of rotation of the armature.

Output of AC Voltage: The generated AC voltage is collected from the armature coil through
brushes and slip rings or other types of collectors. The AC voltage can then be used to power
electrical devices or transmitted over long distances for distribution to homes, businesses, and
industries.

In summary, the basic principle of AC voltage generation in a generator involves the rotation
of an armature within a magnetic field, which induces an alternating current in the armature
coil through electromagnetic induction. This process allows the generator to produce AC
voltage, which is commonly used for various applications in modern electrical systems.

[9] Describe the operating principle of DC generator with proper illustration.[*]

A DC (Direct Current) generator is a device that converts mechanical energy into electrical
energy by electromagnetic induction. It consists of a rotating coil, known as an armature,
which is placed between the poles of a magnet, and a split-ring commutator that is connected
to the armature. Brushes, which are stationary conductive contacts, are in contact with the
commutator and allow the generated electrical current to be collected.

The operating principle of a DC generator can be explained in the following steps:

RTP
30 | E E E - P A R T ( A )

Armature Rotation: The DC generator's armature is mechanically rotated by an external

source of mechanical energy, such as a turbine or an engine. As the armature rotates, it cuts
through the magnetic field created by the stationary magnet, which induces an electromotive
force (EMF) in the armature coil according to Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction.

Generation of EMF: As the armature coil cuts through the magnetic field, the magnetic flux
linked with the coil changes, resulting in the generation of an EMF. The direction of the
induced EMF is given by Fleming's right-hand rule, which states that if the thumb of the right
hand points in the direction of motion of the conductor (armature coil), and the fingers wrap
around the conductor in the direction of the magnetic field, then the direction of the induced
EMF is perpendicular to both the thumb and the fingers.

Commutation: The split-ring commutator, which is attached to the armature, plays a crucial
role in converting the induced AC (Alternating Current) into DC. The commutator consists of
segments that are electrically insulated from each other and connected to the ends of the
armature coil. As the armature rotates, the brushes come in contact with the commutator
segments and collect the induced current. The brushes make contact with only one
commutator segment at a time, which ensures that the direction of the current flowing
through the external circuit remains constant, resulting in DC.

Output of DC Current: The DC current flows from the armature through the brushes and the
external circuit, which may be connected to a load, such as a light bulb or an electric motor,
where the electrical energy is utilized.

In summary, the operating principle of a DC generator involves the generation of an EMF in

the armature coil due to electromagnetic induction, the use of a split-ring commutator to
convert the induced AC into DC, and the collection of the DC current through brushes and an
external circuit. This process allows the DC generator to convert mechanical energy into
electrical energy in the form of direct current.

[10] With neat sketch give the construction details of a DC machine.

A DC motor consists of six main parts, which are as follows

Yoke :- The outer frame of a DC motor is a hollow cylinder made up of cast steel or rolled
steel is known as yoke. The yoke serves following two purposes It supports the field pole
RTP
31 | E E E - P A R T ( A )

core and acts as a protecting cover to the machine & it provides a path for the magnetic flux
produced by the field winding.

Magnetic Field System :- The magnetic field system of a DC motor is the stationary part of
the machine. It produces the main magnetic flux in the motor. It consists of an even number
of pole cores bolted to the yoke and field winding wound around the pole core. The field
system of DC motor has salient poles i.e. the poles project inwards and each pole core has a
pole shoe having a curved surface. The pole shoe serves two purposes It provides support to
the field coils & it reduces the reluctance of magnetic circuit by increasing the cross-sectional
area of it.
The pole cores are made of thin laminations of sheet steel which are insulated from each
other to reduce the eddy current loss. The field coils are connected in series with one another
such that when the current flows through the coils, alternate north and south poles are
produced.

Armature Core :- The armature core of DC motor is mounted on the shaft and rotates
between the field poles. It has slots on its outer surface and the armature conductors are put in
these slots. The armature core is a made up of soft steel laminations which are insulated from
each other and tightly clamped together. In small machines, the laminations are keyed
directly to the shaft, whereas in large machines, they are mounted on a spider. The laminated
armature core is used to reduce the eddy current loss.

Armature Winding :- The insulated conductors are put into the slots of the armature core.
The conductors are suitably connected. This connected arrangement of conductors is known
as armature winding. There are two types of armature windings are used – wave winding and
lap winding.

Commutator :- A commutator is a mechanical rectifier which converts the direct current

input to the motor from the DC source into alternating current in the armature winding. The
commutator is made of wedge-shaped copper segments insulated from each other and from
the shaft by mica sheets. Each segment of commutator is connected to the ends of the
armature coils.

Brushes :- The brushes are mounted on the commutator and are used to inject the current
from the DC source into the armature windings. The brushes are made of carbon and is
supported by a metal box called brush holder. The pressure exerted by the brushes on the
commutator is adjusted and maintained at constant value by means of springs. The current
flows from the external DC source to the armature winding through the carbon brushes and
commutator.

RTP
32 | E E E - P A R T ( A )

[11] Whenever, motor action occurs, the generator action is simultaneously developed -
Justify the statement.[*****]

The statement "Whenever motor action occurs, the generator action is simultaneously
developed" is justified by the principle of electromagnetic induction, which states that a
changing magnetic field induces an electromotive force (EMF) in a coil of wire. This
principle applies to both motors and generators, as they both involve the interaction of
magnetic fields and coils of wire.

When a motor is in operation, it uses electrical energy to produce mechanical work. The
electrical energy is supplied to the motor through an external power source, which provides a
current to flow through the motor's coils. These coils, known as the armature, are subjected to
a magnetic field created by permanent magnets or electromagnets, which causes the armature
to rotate and produce mechanical work.
As the armature rotates in the motor, it cuts through the magnetic field, and according to
Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction, an EMF is induced in the coils of the armature.
This induced EMF opposes the applied voltage, which is the voltage supplied to the motor to
drive it, and is referred to as "back EMF" or "counter EMF". The back EMF is directly
proportional to the speed of the motor and the strength of the magnetic field.
Now, if we consider the motor to be acting as a generator, the same principles of
electromagnetic induction apply. If the armature of the motor is mechanically rotated, it cuts
through the magnetic field, which induces an EMF in the armature coils. This induced EMF
can generate an electrical current that flows through the armature coils and can be collected at
the terminals of the generator. Thus, the motor, when mechanically driven to rotate, can also
act as a generator and produce electrical energy.This phenomenon is known as "generator
action" or "regenerative braking" in motors, where the motor, while in operation, also
generates electricity due to the back EMF generated by its rotating armature. This back EMF
can be utilized and collected as electrical energy, which can be fed back to the power grid or
used to power other electrical loads.
In conclusion, the statement "Whenever motor action occurs, the generator action is
simultaneously developed" is justified by the principle of electromagnetic induction, as
motors and generators both involve the interaction of magnetic fields and coils of wire, and
the same principles of electromagnetic induction apply to both. When a motor is
mechanically driven, it can also generate electrical energy, acting as a generator due to the
back EMF generated by its rotating armature

[12] Explain the classification of DC generator.[**]

RTP
33 | E E E - P A R T ( A )

DC Generators are usually classified according to the way in which their fields are excited.
Generators may be divided into

1. Separately-excited generators
2. Self-excited generators

1. Separately-excited generator: Separately-excited generators are those whose field

magnets are energized from an independent external source of d.c. current.

2. Self-excited generator: Self-excited generators are those whose field magnets are
energized by the current produced by the generators themselves.
There are three types of self-excited generators named according to the manner in which their
field coils (or windings) are connected to the armature.
Shunt wound: The field windings are connected across or in parallel with the armature
conductors and have the full voltage of the generator applied across them.

Series Wound: In this case, the field windings are joined in series with the armature
conductors

Compound Wound: It is a combination of a few series and a few shunt windings and can be
2 types -

i) Short-shunt
ii) Long-shunt.

In a compound generator, the shunt field is stronger than the series field. When series field
aids the shunt field, generator is said to be commutatively-compounded. On the other hand if
series field opposes the shunt field, the generator is said to be differentially compounded.

RTP
34 | E E E - P A R T ( A )

[13] Why starter is required for DC motor?[***]

When power is first applied to a motor, the armature is not rotating and counter-emf will be
zero. Under this condition the current through the armature would be very large because the
armature resistance of a motor is very small (generally less than 1Ω). Hence the starter
(additional resistance) must be connected in series with armature to limit the current until the
motor rotation can build up the counter-emf. In DC motor three-point starter or fourpoint
starter is used.

[14] A DC motor fails to start when switched on. What could be the possible reasons and
remedies?[**]

Any one of the following reasons could be responsible:

(i) Open-circuit in controller - should be checked for open starting resistance or open switch
or open fuse.
(ii) Low terminal voltage - should be adjusted to name-plate value.
(iii) Overload - should be reduced if possible otherwise larger motor should be installed.
(iv) Excessive friction - bearing lubrication should be checked.

[15] A DC motor is found to stop running after a short period of time. What do you think
could be the reasons? How would you remedy each?[*]

Possible causes are as under:

(i) Motor not getting enough power - check voltage at motor terminals as well as fuses, clups
and overload relay.
(ii) Weak or no field in the case of adjustable - speed motors, check if rheostat is correctly
set. Also, check field winding for any ‘open’. Additionally, look for any loose winding or
broken connection.
(iii) Motor torque insufficient for driving the given load - check line voltage with name-plate
voltage. If necessary, use larger motor to match the load.

[16] What happens when a DC motor is connected across an AC supply?[*****]

(i) Since on AC supply, reactance will come into the picture, the AC supply will be offered
impedance (not resistance) by the armature winding. Consequently, with AC supply, current
will be much less. The motor will run but it would not carry the same load as it would on DC
supply.
(ii) There would be more sparking at the brushes.
(iii) Though motor armature is laminated as a rule, the field poles are not. Consequently, eddy
currents will cause the motor to heat up and eventually burn on AC supply.

RTP
35 | E E E - P A R T ( A )

[17] Describe different types of electric braking.[**]

Electric braking of DC motor can be done by three methods -

• Regenerative braking: This method allows the mechanical energy stored in the rotor to be
fed back to the battery by converting the kinetic energy into electrical energy.
• Dynamic Braking or Rheostatic Braking: In this braking method armature terminal
disconnect from supply & connect to high value of resistance. When it is disconnected from
the supply with field supply is remains on, the DC machine will acts as a generator and
converts kinetic energy stored in its moving parts to electrical energy, which is dissipated as
heat in the dynamic brake resistance and armature resistance.
• Plugging or Reverse Current Braking: This method is commonly used in controlling
elevators, rolling mills, printing presses and machine tools etc. In this method, connections to
the armature terminals are reversed so that motor tends to run in the opposite direction and
wastes both energy drawn from the power supply as well as the kinetic energy stored in the
rotor.

[18] Describe the operating principle of a three-phase induction motor with proper
illustration.[*]

When the 3-phase stator windings, are fed by a 3-phase supply then, as seen from above, a
magnetic flux of constant magnitude, but rotating at synchronous speed, is set up. The flux
passes through the airgap, sweeps past the rotor surface and so cuts the rotor conductors
which, as yet, are stationary. Due to the relative speed between the rotating flux and the
stationary conductors, an EMF is induced in the latter, according to Faraday’s laws of electro-
magnetic induction. The frequency of the induced EMF is the same as the supply frequency.
Its magnitude is proportional to the relative velocity between the flux and the conductors and
its direction is given by Fleming’s Right-hand rule. Since the rotor bars or conductors form a
closed circuit, rotor current is produced whose direction, as given by Lenz’s law, is such as to
oppose the very cause producing it. In this case, the cause which produces the rotor current is
the relative velocity between the rotating flux of the stator and the stationary rotor
conductors. Hence, to reduce the relative speed, the rotor starts running in the same direction
as that of the flux and tries to catch up with the rotating flux.

RTP
36 | E E E - P A R T ( A )

[19] How can the direction of rotation of 3-φ induction motor be reversed?

By transposing or changing over any two-line leads, as shown in Fig

[20] Describe the working principle of the three-phase synchronous motor.[**]

The operation of a synchronous motor is due to the interaction of the magnetic fields of the
stator and the rotor. Two electrical inputs are provided to synchronous motor. Its stator
winding which consists of a 3-phase winding is provided with 3-phase supply and rotor is
provided with DC supply. When a 3-φ winding is fed by a 3-φ supply, then a magnetic flux
of constant magnitude but rotating at synchronous speed, is produced. The rotor locks in with
the rotating magnetic field and rotates along with it. Once the rotor locks in with the rotating
magnetic field, the motor is said to be in synchronization.

[21] What modification of a 3-Φ induction motor will convert it into 3-Φ synchronous
motor?[*]

A synchronous motor works according the attraction of two magnetic fields one rotating from
a static three phase circuit (stator) the other one fixed and continuous (DC) on a rotating
circuit (rotor). The induction machine works according to reaction of a movable closed
electrical circuit to a rotating magnetic field. In the induction machine, to get a torque so to
get rotation, a slip is mandatory. It is not possible for the induction machine to work at
synchronism by only reaction law (except at no load, where the torque is so small that the slip
is quite 0). But it should be possible to the induction machine to work as synchronous
machine if in the rotor we can create a fixed dc field.

[22] Describe the working principle of a transformer.

Transformer works on Faraday's law of mutual induction. Faraday's law of electromagnetic

induction states that, when a change takes place in the magnetic flux which is linked with a
circuit, an electromotive force current will induce in the circuit. The transformer consists of
two separate winding placed over the laminated silicon steel core. The winding to which AC
supply is connected is called primary winding and to which load is connected is called
secondary winding. It works on the alternating current only because an alternating flux is
required for mutual induction between the two winding. When the AC supply is given to the
primary winding with a certain voltage, an alternating flux sets up in the core of the
transformer, which links with the secondary winding and as a result of it, an emf is induced in
it called Mutually Induced emf. The direction of this induced emf is opposite to the applied
voltage.

RTP
37 | E E E - P A R T ( A )

[23] How does change in frequency affect the operation of a given transformer?[******]

• Iron loss: It increases with a decrease in frequency. A 60Hz transformer will have nearly
11% higher losses when worked on 50Hz instead of 60 Hz. However, when a 25Hz
transformer is worked on 60Hz, iron losses are reduced by 25%.
• Cu loss: In distribution transformers, it is independent of frequency.
• Efficiency: Since Cu loss is unaffected by change in frequency, a given transformer
efficiency is less at a lower frequency than at a higher one.
• Regulation: Regulation at unity power factor is not affected because IR drop is independent
of frequency. Since reactive drop is affected, regulation at low power factors decreases with a
decrease in frequency and vice-versa. For example, the regulation of a 25Hz transformer
when operated at 50-Hz and low power factor is much poorer.
• Heating: Since total loss is greater at a lower frequency, the temperature is increased with
decrease in frequency.

[24] What effects are produced by change in voltage?

• Iron loss: Iron varies approximately as V 2.

• Cu loss: It also varies as V2 but decreases with an increase in voltage if constant kVA
output is assumed.
• Efficiency: For distribution transformers, efficiency at fractional loads decreases with
increase in voltage while at full load or overload it increases with increase in voltage and vice
versa.
• Regulation: It varies as V2 but decreases with increase in voltage if constant kVA output is
assumed.
• Heating: For constant kVA output, iron temperatures increase whereas Cu temperatures
decrease with increase in voltages and vice-versa.

[25] Is it possible to make a transformer working in DC? Give explanation on your

answer.[*]

Yes. There are some ways to make a transformer work with DC:

Using a pulsed DC voltage: If a pulsed DC voltage is applied to the primary winding of a

transformer, the changing magnetic field produced by the pulsed voltage can induce voltage

RTP
38 | E E E - P A R T ( A )

in the secondary winding. This is similar to the operation of an autotransformer, where the
primary and secondary windings are connected together, and a portion of the voltage is
induced in the secondary winding.

Using a DC-DC converter: A DC-DC converter, such as a chopper or a buck-boost

converter, can be used to convert the DC voltage to an AC voltage with a varying magnitude
or frequency. This AC voltage can then be applied to the primary winding of a transformer,
inducing voltage in the secondary winding.

Using a special type of transformer: There are some specialized transformers, such as a
magnetic amplifier or a rotary transformer, that are designed to work with DC voltage. These
transformers have special configurations or components that allow them to operate with DC
voltage.
It's important to note that using a transformer with DC voltage requires careful consideration
of the specific requirements of the application, including the voltage level, current level,
frequency (if using a pulsed DC), and other factors.

[26] Write short note on loom motors and ring frame motors.

1. Spinning Frame or Ring Frame Motors: These are required to make threads i.e. the final
drawing, twisting and winding of cotton. A normal acceleration time of 5-10 seconds is
recommended. For good quality spinning, it is essential that the starting torque of spinning
motors should be moderate and such motors must possess very smooth acceleration to
eliminate breakage of threads.
In general, three types of drives are used for spinning frame operation -
i) Single speed motor,
ii) Two-speed motor
iii) Two motor drive.
Normally, a 4 pole or 6 pole squirrel cage induction motor is used as single speed drive.
In order to maximize production with minimum breakage, two speed motors (4/6 or 6/8
poles) are used. Although these motors would be larger in size and costlier, the increased
production may compensate for the additional initial outlay.
In case of two motor drive, two separate motors are used to drive the common pulley of the
ring frame. Although this drive is costlier and requires more space, it has the following
advantages:

(i) Any desired speed differential can be got by adjusting the speed ratios
(ii) The tension of the yarn can be adjusted independently.
(iii) Production can be continued even when one of the motors fails. Totally enclosed fan
cooled motors ranging from 5-30kW are used a spinning motor.

2. Loom Motors: In order to accomplish the 'pick up' process in a short time, the starting
torque of the loom motor should be high being essentially a reciprocating mechanism causes
both torque and current pulsations. Also, loom motors are subjected to frequent starts and
stops, these results in a higher temperature rise and is taken care by having good thermal
dissipation capacity of the motor. Loom motors are either totally enclosed or totally enclosed
fan cooled, three phase high torque squirrel cage induction motors. Presence of lot of fluff in
the atmosphere requires a smooth surface finish of the housing and end shields so that the
fluff does not get collected on the surface of the motor. The insulation of the motor must be

RTP
39 | E E E - P A R T ( A )

able to withstand high moisture content. The ratings of the motors used for driving looms for
light fabrics such as cotton, silk, rayon, nylon etc. are 0.37 kW, 0.55 kW, 0.75 kW, 1.1 kW
and 1.5 kW, while those of the motors used for making heavy fabrics (wool and canvas) are
2.2 kW and 3.7 kW. They are usually of 6 or 8 poles.

[27] Give a suitable motor for the following drives machine: (i) Coil winding machines (ii)
Teleprinters and clocks (iii) Textile machinery and boring mills (iv) Small domestic
appliances (v) Elevators and compressors (vi) Drills (vii) Cement industries (viii) Laundry
washing machines.

Based on the applications mentioned, here are some suitable motor types for the respective
drives:

(i) Coil winding machines: A stepper motor or a servo motor with high torque and precise
control would be suitable for coil winding machines. These motors can provide precise
positioning and accurate winding control, which are critical for producing coils with
consistent quality.

(ii) Teleprinters and clocks: A small DC motor or a stepper motor with low power and low
torque requirements would be suitable for teleprinters and clocks. These motors can provide
smooth and quiet operation for timekeeping applications.

(iii) Textile machinery and boring mills: Three-phase induction motors or synchronous
motors with variable frequency drives (VFDs) would be suitable for textile machinery and
boring mills. These motors can provide high torque, variable speed control, and efficient
operation for various textile and machining processes.

(iv) Small domestic appliances: Universal motors or permanent magnet motors would be
suitable for small domestic appliances such as blenders, mixers, and vacuum cleaners. These
motors are compact, lightweight, and provide high-speed operation with good efficiency.

(v) Elevators and compressors: Three-phase induction motors with VFDs or synchronous
motors would be suitable for elevators and compressors. These motors can provide high
torque, precise speed control, and reliable operation for heavy-duty applications.

(vi) Drills: A universal motor or a brushed DC motor would be suitable for drills. These
motors provide high torque and high-speed operation, making them ideal for drilling
applications.

(vii) Cement industries: Large three-phase induction motors or synchronous motors with high
power and high torque ratings would be suitable for cement industries. These motors can
provide reliable operation for heavy-duty applications such as crushers, mills, and kilns.

(viii) Laundry washing machines: Brushless DC (BLDC) motors or three-phase induction

motors with VFDs would be suitable for laundry washing machines. These motors provide
high efficiency, variable speed control, and reliable operation for washing machine
applications.

RTP
40 | E E E - P A R T ( A )

[28] What is the function of an inverter in the application of textile machines? Explain with
examples.
In the context of textile machines, an inverter, also known as a variable frequency drive
(VFD), is an electronic device used to control the speed and torque of electric motors. It
converts the fixed frequency and voltage of the power supply to a variable frequency and
voltage that can be adjusted to meet the specific requirements of textile machinery. The main
function of an inverter in textile machines is to enable precise control of motor speed, which
in turn affects the performance and productivity of various textile processes. Here are some
examples of how inverters are used in textile machines:
Spinning Machines: In spinning machines, which are used to convert fibers into yarn,
inverters are used to control the speed of the spinning motors. By adjusting the frequency and
voltage output of the inverter, the motor speed can be precisely controlled to optimize the
yarn quality and production rate. For example, during the start-up of a spinning machine, the
inverter can gradually ramp up the motor speed to prevent yarn breakage and ensure smooth
operation.
Weaving Machines: In weaving machines, which are used to create fabric by interlacing
yarns, inverters are used to control the speed of the loom motors. The inverter allows for
precise control of the loom speed, which can be adjusted based on the type of fabric being
produced, the desired pattern, and the material properties. For example, when weaving
delicate or high-quality fabrics, the inverter can be used to fine-tune the loom speed to
prevent yarn breakage and achieve consistent fabric quality.
Dyeing Machines: In dyeing machines, which are used to color textiles, inverters are used to
control the speed of the dyeing motors. The inverter allows for precise control of the motor
speed, which can be adjusted based on the type of fabric, dyeing process, and desired color
shade. For example, during the dyeing process, the inverter can be used to control the motor
speed to achieve the desired dye uptake and color uniformity.
Printing Machines: In textile printing machines, which are used to apply patterns or designs
onto fabric, inverters are used to control the speed of the printing motors. The inverter allows
for precise control of the motor speed, which can be adjusted based on the type of fabric,
printing process, and desired print quality. For example, during the printing process, the
inverter can be used to adjust the motor speed to achieve accurate registration of the design
and prevent smudging or other print defects.
Overall, the function of an inverter in textile machines is to enable precise control of motor
speed, which is crucial for optimizing various textile processes such as spinning, weaving,
dyeing, and printing. By adjusting the frequency and voltage output, inverters provide
flexibility and efficiency in controlling motor speed, leading to improved productivity,
quality, and energy savings in textile manufacturing processes.

[29] DC shunt motor speed control mechanism.[*]

DC shunt motors can be controlled by varying the voltage applied to the motor or by
changing the field current. There are several methods for controlling the speed of a DC shunt
motor, including:

RTP
41 | E E E - P A R T ( A )

• Armature Voltage Control: By changing the armature voltage, the speed of the motor can
be varied. This can be done using a variable resistor or by using a pulse-width modulation
(PWM) controller.
• Field Current Control: By varying the field current, the magnetic field strength of the
motor can be changed, which affects the speed. This can be done using a variable resistor
or by using a chopper circuit.
• Armature Resistance Control: By adding a resistance in series with the armature, the
voltage drop across the armature can be increased, reducing the motor's speed.
• Flux Control: By varying the magnetic flux in the motor, the speed can be controlled.
This can be achieved by using a series-parallel control or by using a separate excitation
control.
• Voltage Control with Current Limiting: This method involves applying a variable voltage
to the motor and limiting the current to control the speed.
• Electronic Control: This involves using electronic circuits to control the speed of the
motor. This method is more efficient than other methods and allows for precise speed
control

RTP
42 | E E E - P A R T ( A )

POWER SYSTEM

[1] What are the advantages and disadvantages of DC transmission over AC transmission?

Direct current (DC) and alternating current (AC) are two different methods of transmitting
electrical power. Here are some advantages and disadvantages of DC transmission compared
to AC transmission:

Advantages of DC transmission:

• Lower line losses: DC power does not suffer from the same levels of inductance and
capacitance losses that AC power does, resulting in lower energy losses over long
distances.

• Ability to transmit power over longer distances: DC transmission is more efficient for
long-distance transmission of electricity, particularly over underwater or underground
cables.

• Improved stability and control: DC systems can be easily controlled and regulated,
allowing for better management of power flow, voltage, and reactive power. This can
result in improved reliability and stability of the overall power grid.

Disadvantages of DC transmission:

• Higher initial costs: Building and installing DC transmission infrastructure can be more
expensive compared to AC transmission infrastructure.

• Limited availability of DC devices: Many electrical devices and appliances are designed
to operate on AC power, and there is a limited availability of DC-based devices in the
market.

• Complex converter stations: DC transmission requires converter stations at both ends of

the transmission line which is complex and expensive to build and maintain, adding to the
overall complexity of the transmission system.

• Lower efficiency for short distances: DC transmission is generally less efficient than AC
transmission for shorter distances.

[2] Draw and explain the single line diagram of (i) typical power system (ii) Bangladesh
power system (iii)transformer sub-station (iv) your home/a garments factory.[******]

Here's a brief explanation of the single line diagrams for various power systems:

• Typical Power System: A typical power system single line diagram shows the major
components and connections of a generic power system. It includes a generator, a
transformer, transmission lines, distribution lines, and loads. The generator is connected
to a step-up transformer, which increases the voltage for transmission over long distances
through transmission lines. The power is then distributed to loads, such as homes,

RTP
43 | E E E - P A R T ( A )

factories, and commercial buildings, through distribution lines. Protective devices, such
as circuit breakers and disconnect switches, are also included to ensure safe and reliable
operation of the system

• Bangladesh Power System: The single line diagram of the power system in Bangladesh
would be similar to a typical power system, with some specific components and
configurations based on the power generation, transmission, and distribution
infrastructure in Bangladesh. It would include power plants, such as thermal, hydro, and
renewable energy sources, as well as substations, transformers, transmission lines, and
distribution lines that are specific to Bangladesh's power grid.

• Transformer Substation: The single line diagram of a transformer substation typically

shows the incoming power supply, the transformers, and the outgoing distribution
feeders. It includes the incoming power lines connected to a transformer, which steps
down the voltage to a suitable level for distribution. The outgoing feeders, which supply
power to different loads, such as homes, factories, or commercial buildings, are shown
along with protective devices, such as circuit breakers, switches, and transformers.

RTP
44 | E E E - P A R T ( A )

• Home/Garments Factory: The single line diagram for a home or a garments factory
would show the incoming power supply, the main distribution panel, and the loads within
the premises. It includes the incoming power lines connected to the main distribution
panel, which distributes power to different loads, such as lighting, appliances, motors, and
other electrical equipment within the premises. Protective devices, such as circuit
breakers, switches, and transformers, may also be included to ensure safe and reliable
operation of the electrical system

[3] Describe the operation of circuit breaker.[***]

A circuit breaker is an electrical switch that is designed to automatically interrupt the flow of
electric current in an electrical circuit when certain conditions, such as overloading or short
circuiting, occur. It is an important safety device that helps protect electrical systems and
appliances from damage caused by excessive current or overheating.

The operation of a circuit breaker typically involves the following steps:

• Normal operation: When an electrical circuit is operating within its normal current-
carrying capacity, the circuit breaker remains closed, allowing the current to flow
uninterrupted.

• Overload detection: If the current flowing through the circuit exceeds the rated current of
the circuit breaker for an extended period of time, the circuit breaker's built-in sensors
detect the overload condition.

• Trip mechanism activation: Once an overload condition is detected, the trip mechanism of
the circuit breaker is activated, which mechanically opens the circuit breaker contacts,
disconnecting the circuit from the power source and stopping the flow of current.

• Short circuit detection: In case of a short circuit, which is a more severe fault where the
current flows unrestricted through an unintended path, the circuit breaker's sensors detect
the high current flow and activate the trip mechanism.

• Manual reset: After the circuit breaker has tripped due to an overload or short circuit, it
needs to be manually reset to restore power to the circuit.

• Protection and indication: Circuit breakers may also have additional features, such as
indicating the status of the breaker (e.g., tripped or closed) through visual or audible
signals, and providing protection against other electrical faults, such as ground faults or
arc faults.

Overall, the operation of a circuit breaker is designed to automatically interrupt the flow of
electric current when abnormal conditions occur, in order to protect electrical systems,
appliances, and users from potential hazards

RTP
45 | E E E - P A R T ( A )

[4] Describe the working principle of a relay operated circuit breaker with proper illustration.
[*]
A relay-operated circuit breaker is a type of circuit protection device that uses a relay to sense
abnormal conditions in an electrical circuit and trip the circuit breaker to interrupt the flow of
current. The working principle of a relay-operated circuit breaker can be described in the
following steps, with an illustration:

• Sensing abnormal conditions: The relay in the circuit breaker is designed to sense
abnormal conditions in the electrical circuit, such as overloading, short circuiting, or other
faults using sensors.

• Relay activation: When an abnormal condition is detected, the relay is activated.

• Trip signal generation: The activation of the relay generates a trip signal, which is used to
trigger the trip mechanism of the circuit breaker.

• Trip mechanism activation: The trip signal from the relay activates the trip mechanism of
the circuit breaker.When the trip mechanism is activated, it mechanically opens the
contacts, disconnecting the circuit from the power source and stopping the flow of
current.

• Manual reset: After the circuit breaker has tripped due to an abnormal condition, it needs
to be manually reset to restore power to the circuit.

• Circuit protection and indication: The relay-operated circuit breaker provides protection
against abnormal conditions in the electrical circuit, such as overloads, short circuits, and
other faults.

RTP
46 | E E E - P A R T ( A )

[5] What are the differences between fuse and circuit breaker?[********]

[6] How to connect an MCCB with the load?

Generally, most of the MCCB is designed to connect the input supply at the bottom side and
output from the top side. So, all the three phases (R, Y, B) of input power supply are
connected at the bottom side of the MCCB and outgoing are connected to the top side of the
MCCB. Outgoings are connected to the Busbar. A busbar is used when multiple loads are
connected to the same circuit. In the diagram, only one load is shown. The connection
procedure is given bellows:

• First, select the MCCB with proper rating according to the load.
• Connect all the phases of the power supply at the input side. There should be no loose
connection.

• Connect all the phases of the load at the output side. There also should be no loose
connection.

[7] Write short note on: MCB and MCCB

MCB (Miniature Circuit Breaker) and MCCB (Molded Case Circuit Breaker) are both types
of circuit breakers used for protecting electrical circuits from overcurrents and short circuits.
Here's a brief overview of each:

RTP
47 | E E E - P A R T ( A )

MCB (Miniature Circuit Breaker):

• MCBs are compact circuit breakers typically used for residential, commercial, and light
industrial applications.
• They are designed to protect against overcurrents and short circuits in low-voltage
electrical circuits.
• MCBs are available in various current ratings and breaking capacities to suit different
applications.
• They have a fixed trip setting and can be manually reset after tripping.
• MCBs are commonly used in distribution boards, panel boards, and final sub-circuits.
MCCB (Molded Case Circuit Breaker):
• MCCBs are larger circuit breakers used for higher current and higher voltage applications
in industrial and commercial settings.
• They are designed to protect against overcurrents and short circuits in medium and high-
voltage electrical circuits.
• MCCBs are housed in a molded case made of insulating materials for better protection
and durability.
• They have adjustable trip settings and can be manually or automatically reset after
tripping.
• MCCBs are available in higher current ratings and breaking capacities compared to
MCBs.
• They are commonly used in main distribution boards, motor control centers, and other
heavy-duty applications.

[8] What is sub-station? Discuss the different ways of classifying the sub-station.[*******]

A substation, also known as a switching station, is an integral part of an electrical power

system that is used for transforming voltage levels, switching and controlling power flows,
and ensuring reliable and efficient transmission and distribution of electricity.
There are several ways of classifying sub-stations. However, the two most important ways of
classifying them are according to service requirement and constructional features.

According to the service requirement :

• Transformer sub-stations: Those sub-stations which change the voltage level of electric
supply are called transformer sub-stations. Most of the sub-stations in the power system
are of this type.
• Switching sub-stations: These sub-stations do not change the voltage level i.e. incoming
and outgoing lines have the same voltage. However, they simply perform the switching
operations of power lines.
• Power factor correction sub-stations: Those sub-stations which improve the power factor
of the system are called power factor correction sub-stations.
• Frequency changer sub-stations: Those sub-stations which change the supply frequency
are known as frequency changer sub-stations. Such a frequency change may be required
for industrial utilization.
• Converting sub-stations: Those sub-stations which change a.c. power into d.c. power are
called converting sub-stations.
• Industrial sub-stations: Those sub-stations which supply power to individual industrial
concerns are known as industrial sub-stations.
According to constructional features :

RTP
48 | E E E - P A R T ( A )

• Indoor sub-stations: For voltages up to 11 kV, the equipment of the sub-station is

installed indoor because of economic considerations. However, when the atmosphere is
contaminated with impurities, these substations can be erected for voltages up to 66 kV.
• Outdoor sub-stations: For voltages beyond 66 kV, equipment is invariably installed
outdoor. It is because for such voltages, the clearances between conductors and the space
required for switches, circuit breakers and other equipment becomes so great that it is not
economical to install the equipment indoor.
• Underground sub-stations: In thickly populated areas, the space available for equipment
and building is limited and the cost of land is high. Under such situations, the sub-station
is created underground.
• Pole-mounted sub-stations: This is an outdoor sub-station with equipment installed
overhead on H-pole or 4-pole structure. It is the cheapest form of sub-station for voltages
not exceeding 11kV (or 33 kV in some cases). Electric power is almost distributed in
localities through such sub-stations.

[9] List the various substation equipment’s with their basic functions.[**]

Substations are critical components of electrical power systems and are equipped with
various types of equipment to perform different functions. Some of the common substation
equipment and their basic functions are listed below:

• Transformers: Transformers are used in substations to change the voltage levels of

electrical power. Step-up transformers increase the voltage of power generated at power
plants for long-distance transmission, while step-down transformers decrease the voltage
for distribution to consumers.
• Circuit breakers: Circuit breakers are used to protect the electrical system from overloads,
short circuits, and faults.
• Switchgear: Switchgear is used for switching and control of power flows in a substation.
It includes switches, disconnectors, and earthing switches that allow for the connection or
disconnection of transmission or distribution lines, switching between different power
sources, and control of power flow direction.
• Protective relays: Protective relays are devices that detect abnormal conditions in the
electrical system, such as overloads, short circuits, and faults, and send signals to circuit
breakers to interrupt the current and protect the equipment and the system from damage.
• Surge arrestors: Surge arrestors are used to protect the electrical system from voltage
surges caused by lightning strikes or switching operations. They divert excessive voltage
surges to the ground, preventing damage to the equipment.
• Busbars: Busbars are used to distribute electric power within a substation.
• Capacitor banks: Capacitor banks are used for power factor correction in substations.
They help improve the power factor of the electrical system, which optimizes the
efficiency of the power system and reduces energy losses.
• Control and monitoring systems: Substations are equipped with control and monitoring
systems that allow operators to monitor the performance of the power system, collect data
on various parameters, and remotely control the operation of switchgear, transformers,
and other equipment.
• Battery banks and chargers: Battery banks and chargers provide backup power for
substation control and protection systems in case of power outages. They ensure
continuous operation of critical equipment during emergencies.

RTP
49 | E E E - P A R T ( A )

• Grounding systems: Grounding systems provide a safe path for electrical currents to flow
to the earth in case of faults or abnormal conditions. They help protect personnel and
equipment from electric shocks and ensure safety in the substation.
• Communication systems: Communication systems are used for remote monitoring,
control, and coordination of substation operations. They allow for real-time
communication between substations, control centers, and operators for efficient
management of the power system

[10] What is the function of sub-station? Give the comparison of outdoor and indoor sub
stations.

The main functions of a substation include:

• Substations are used to transform the voltage levels of electrical power to facilitate
efficient transmission and distribution.
• Substations are equipped with switchgear that allows for the switching and control of
power flows.
• Substations are responsible for providing protection to the power system equipment and
ensuring the safety of personnel.
• Substations are equipped with monitoring and control systems that allow operators to
monitor the performance of the power system, collect data on various parameters such as
voltage, current, and temperature, and remotely control the operation of switchgear,
transformers, and other equipment.
• Substations may also include power factor correction equipment to improve the power
factor of the electrical system, which helps in optimizing the efficiency of the power
system and reducing energy losses.
• Substations facilitate the interconnection of different power sources, such as power
plants, renewable energy sources, and distributed generation, to the power grid.
• Distribution substations further distribute the power to local distribution networks that
serve consumers, which may include step-down transformers, switchgear, and other
equipment for local distribution and control.

Comparison of outdoor and indoor sub stations.

RTP
50 | E E E - P A R T ( A )

[11] What is electric shock?[*]

Electric shock refers to the physiological response of the human body when it comes into
contact with an electric current. It occurs when electric current flows through a part of the
body, which can happen when a person touches live electrical conductors or comes into
contact with energized equipment or appliances. Electric shock can vary in severity, ranging
from a mild tingling sensation to severe injuries or even death(Electrocution).

[12] What do you mean by grounding? Illustrate the need of equipment grounding.[*]

The process of connecting the metallic frame (i.e. non-current carrying part) of electrical
equipment or some electrical part of the system (e.g. neutral point in a star-connected system,
one conductor of the secondary of a transformer etc.) to earth (i.e. soil) is called grounding or
earthing.

We shall illustrate the need of effective equipment grounding by considering a single-phase

circuit composed of a 230V source connected to a motor M as shown in Fig. 26.1. Note that
neutral is solidly grounded at the service entrance. In the interest of easy understanding, we
shall divide the discussion into three heads viz.
❖ Ungrounded enclosure
❖ Enclosure connected to neutral wire
❖ Ground wire connected to enclosure.

❖ Ungrounded enclosure: Fig. 26.1 shows the case of ungrounded metal enclosure. If a
person touches the metal enclosure, nothing will happen if the equipment is functioning
correctly. But if the winding insulation becomes faulty, the resistance Re between the motor
and enclosure drops to a low value(a few hundred ohms or less). A person having a body
resistance Rb would complete the current path as shown in Fig. 26.1. If Re is small (as is
usually the case when insulation failure of winding occurs), the leakage current IL through
the person’s body could be dangerously high. As a result, the person would get severe electric
shock which may be fatal. Therefore, this system is unsafe.

Fig.26.1

❖ Enclosure connected to neutral wire: It may appear that the above problem can be
solved by connecting the enclosure to the grounded neutral wire as shown in Fig. 26.2. Now
the leakage current IL flows from the motor, through the enclosure and straight back to the
neutral wire (Fig.26.2). Therefore, the enclosure remains at earth potential. Consequently, the
operator would not experience any electric shock.

RTP
51 | E E E - P A R T ( A )

Fig. 26.2

The trouble with this method is that the neutral wire may become open either accidentally or
due to a faulty installation. For example, if the switch is inadvertently in series with the
neutral rather than the live wire (Fig. 26.3), the motor can still be turned on and off. However,
if someone touched the enclosure while the motor is off, he would receive a severe electric
shock (Fig. 26.3). It is because when the motor is off, the potential of the enclosure rises to
that of the live conductor.

Fig. 26.3

❖ Ground wire connected to enclosure: To get rid of this problem, we install a third wire,
called ground wire, between the enclosure and the system ground as shown in Fig. 26.4. The
ground wire may be bare or insulated. If it is insulated, it is coloured green.

Fig. 26.4

RTP
52 | E E E - P A R T ( A )

[13] With a neat Sketch explain pipe and plate earthing.

Pipe and plate earthing are two methods of grounding or earthing used in electrical systems to
protect against electrical shocks and to provide a safe path for electrical currents to dissipate
into the earth. Both methods involve connecting electrical systems to the ground, but they
differ in the materials used for grounding.

Plate Earthing: Plate earthing involves using a metal plate, typically made of copper or
galvanized iron (GI), as the grounding electrode. A metal plate, usually 2-3 feet wide and 6-
10 feet long, is buried horizontally in the ground at a depth of at least 8-10 feet. The plate is
connected to the electrical system with the help of a copper conductor or earthing wire.

Pipe Earthing: Pipe earthing involves using a metal pipe, typically made of galvanized iron
(GI), as the grounding electrode. A vertical pipe, usually 8-10 feet long and 2-4 inches in
diameter, is buried vertically in the ground. The top of the pipe is exposed above the ground
level and is connected to the electrical system with the help of a copper conductor or earthing
wire. The bottom of the pipe is buried deep in the ground, typically in a moist area, to ensure
good electrical conductivity.

[14] List the different types of switches with their applications.

Here are some different types of switches along with their typical applications:

• Single-Pole, Single-Throw (SPST) switch: This is a basic on/off switch that controls a
single circuit. It is commonly used in household appliances, lamps, and power strips.
• Single-Pole, Double-Throw (SPDT) switch: This switch has three terminals and can be
used to connect one input to either of two outputs. It is commonly used in motor control
circuits, changeover switches, and audio equipment.
• Double-Pole, Single-Throw (DPST) switch: This switch controls two separate circuits
simultaneously, either both on or both off. It is commonly used in applications where two
separate circuits need to be controlled simultaneously, such as in lighting circuits and
home appliances.
• Double-Pole, Double-Throw (DPDT) switch: This switch has six terminals and can be
used to control two separate circuits, each with two different positions. It is commonly

RTP
53 | E E E - P A R T ( A )

used in applications that require multiple functions or modes, such as audio equipment,
power tools, and industrial machinery.
• Push-button switch: A push-button switch is a switch that is activated by pressing a
button. It is commonly used in electronic devices such as calculators, remote controls, and
game controllers.
• Rotary switch: A rotary switch is a switch that has a knob that can be turned to select a
specific position. It is commonly used in audio equipment, such as amplifiers and mixers.
• Touch switch: A touch switch is a type of switch that only has to be touched by an object
to operate.It is commonly used in home automation, consumer electronics, automotive,
industrial control, medical equipment, public/commercial spaces, gaming/entertainment.
• Knife switch: A knife switch is a type of electrical switch that consists of a hinged lever
or "blade" that can be manually moved to establish or break an electrical circuit. It is
commonly used in low-voltage applications for safety disconnects, circuit isolation, and
educational demonstrations.
• Time switch: A time switch is a switch that is used to turn an electrical device on or off
at a specific time. It is commonly used in lighting systems to turn lights on and off at
specific times.
• Centrifugal switch: A centrifugal switch is an electromechanical switch that is typically
used in electric motors to automatically disconnect the starting winding from the circuit
once the motor reaches a certain speed. It is commonly used in single-phase induction
motors for efficient motor starting and protection against damage due to prolonged use of
starting winding.
• Pull switch: A pull switch is a type of switch that is operated by pulling or tugging on a
cord or chain, typically used for on/off control of lights or appliances. It is commonly
used in ceiling fans, bathroom lights, and overhead fixtures where a simple and
convenient switch operation is desired without the need for complex wiring or
installation.
• Key switch: A key switch is a type of electrical switch that requires a physical key to
operate, providing a level of security and control. It is commonly used in access control
systems, security systems, and locking mechanisms where authorized access and control
are desired.
• Forward and Reverse switch: A Forward and Reverse switch is a type of switch that
allows for the directional control of an electric motor, enabling it to run in both forward
and reverse directions. It is commonly used in applications such as motorized vehicles,
conveyor belts, and winches where reversible motor operation is required for changing
the direction of motion.
• Transfer switch: Found in backup power systems and generators to switch between
multiple power sources, such as utility power and backup power, during power outages.

[15] What are the different types of lamps available in the market? Give the specifications of
a typical lamp.What are the advantages of LED lamps?

There are various types of lamps available in the market, which can be broadly categorized
into the following types:

• Incandescent lamps: These are the traditional light bulbs that produce light by heating a
wire filament inside a glass envelope. They are inexpensive but less energy-efficient
compared to other types of lamps, and have a relatively shorter lifespan.

RTP
54 | E E E - P A R T ( A )

• Compact fluorescent lamps (CFLs): These are energy-efficient lamps that use a
fluorescent coating and a gas to produce light. They are more energy-efficient than
incandescent lamps and have a longer lifespan, but contain small amounts of mercury and
require proper disposal.

• Light-emitting diode (LED) lamps: These are highly energy-efficient lamps that use
semiconductor technology to produce light. They are long-lasting, environmentally
friendly, and offer a wide range of color options. LED lamps are now the most popular
type of lamp used in various applications due to their energy efficiency and versatility.

• Halogen lamps: These are similar to incandescent lamps but use a halogen gas to
improve their efficiency and lifespan. They produce bright, high-quality light and are
often used in specialty applications such as accent lighting, task lighting, and automotive
lighting.

• High-intensity discharge (HID) lamps: These are high-efficiency lamps that produce
light by passing an electric current through a gas or vapor. They are commonly used in
outdoor lighting, street lighting, and industrial applications due to their high lumen output
and long lifespan.

• Fluorescent lamps: These are long, tubular lamps that use a phosphorescent coating and
a gas to produce light when an electric current is passed through them. They are
commonly used in commercial and industrial settings for general lighting purposes, such
as offices, warehouses, and retail spaces.

• Incandescent filament lamps: These are specialty lamps that use a coiled filament to
produce decorative lighting effects. They are often used in chandeliers, pendant lights,
and other decorative lighting fixtures.

Here are some typical specifications of a standard LED lamp:

Wattage: Typically ranges from 3 to 20 watts, although higher wattages are available for
specific applications.
Lumens: Represents the brightness of the lamp, typically ranging from 200 to 2000 lumens
or more, depending on the wattage and type of LED lamp.
Color temperature: Measured in Kelvin (K) and represents the color appearance of the light
produced by the lamp. Common color temperatures include warm white (2700-3000K), cool
white (4000-5000K), and daylight (5000-6500K).
Base type: Refers to the type of connector used to screw or plug the lamp into a light fixture,
such as Edison screw (E26/E27), bayonet (B22), or pin base (GU10, G13, etc.).
Dimmability: Some LED lamps are dimmable, allowing for adjustable brightness levels
using compatible dimmer switches.
Lifespan: LED lamps typically have a long lifespan, ranging from 15,000 to 50,000 hours or
more, depending on the quality and usage.
Energy efficiency: LED lamps are known for their high energy efficiency, typically
consuming less energy compared to other types of lamps for the same level of brightness.

Here are some of the key advantages of LED lamps:

LED lamps are highly energy-efficient, can save up to 80% or more on electricity bills.
RTP
55 | E E E - P A R T ( A )

LED lamps have a long lifespan, typically ranging from 15,000 to 50,000 hours or more,
means less frequent replacement and maintenance, resulting in cost savings and reduced
waste.LED lamps do not contain hazardous materials such as mercury or lead, making them
safer for the environment and easier to dispose of compared to some other types of lamps,
such as compact fluorescent lamps (CFLs).LED lamps are durable and resistant to shock,
vibrations, and temperature changes, making them suitable for various environments and
applications. They are less prone to breakage, making them ideal for outdoor and rugged use.
LED lamps provide instant illumination without any warm-up time, unlike some other types
of lamps that require time to reach full brightness.LED lamps are available in a wide range of
shapes, sizes, and colors, offering design flexibility for various lighting applications. LED
lamps are inherently directional, which means they can be designed to emit light in specific
directions without the need for additional reflectors or diffusers. This allows for more
efficient and precise lighting, reducing light wastage and enhancing lighting performance.
Many LED lamps are dimmable, allowing for adjustable brightness levels and customized
lighting control in compatible fixtures.

[16] How to use lightening arrester is residential area?

A lightning arrester, also known as a lightning protector or surge protector, is a device used to
protect electrical systems and devices from damage caused by lightning strikes or voltage
surges. Here are the general steps to use a lightning arrester in a residential area:

Consult with a qualified electrician: Lightning arrester installation requires professional

expertise to ensure proper installation and compliance with local electrical codes. It is
recommended to consult with a qualified electrician who has experience in installing
lightning protection systems.

Choose the right type of lightning arrester: There are different types of lightning arresters
available, such as rod-type, wire-in-air, and metal-oxide varistor (MOV) type. The type of
lightning arrester needed depends on the specific requirements of your residential area, such
as the location, size of the structure, and the level of lightning activity in the area. Consult
with a qualified electrician to determine the appropriate type of lightning arrester for your
residential area.

Install the lightning arrester at a suitable location: Lightning arresters are typically installed at
the highest point of a structure, such as the roof or the chimney, to provide a direct path for
lightning to follow and divert it away from the electrical system. The lightning arrester
should be grounded using a proper grounding system to effectively dissipate the lightning
energy into the ground and protect the connected electrical devices.

Follow manufacturer's instructions and local codes: Always follow the manufacturer's
instructions for the specific lightning arrester being installed, as well as local electrical codes
and regulations. This ensures that the lightning arrester is installed correctly and functions
properly.

Regular maintenance: Lightning arresters should be inspected and maintained regularly to

ensure their continued effectiveness. This may include checking for any physical damage,
ensuring proper grounding, and cleaning any accumulated debris or dirt.

RTP
56 | E E E - P A R T ( A )

Consider a whole-house surge protection system: In addition to a lightning arrester, it is also

recommended to install a whole-house surge protection system in your residential area. This
provides additional protection against voltage surges caused by various sources, including
lightning strikes and power grid fluctuations

[17] Explain the principles of protection of transformer and motors.[***]

Transformers and motors are crucial components in electrical power systems, and their
protection is essential for the safe and reliable operation of the system. The principles of
protection for transformers and motors involve detecting abnormal operating conditions and
taking appropriate action to prevent damage to the equipment.

Protection of Transformers:

• Overcurrent Protection: Overcurrent protection is provided to protect transformers against

faults caused by excessive currents. The protection is based on measuring the current
flowing through the transformer and tripping the protective device if it exceeds a
predetermined limit.
• Differential Protection: Differential protection is used to protect transformers against
internal faults. The principle of differential protection is based on comparing the currents
entering and leaving the transformer. Any difference in the currents indicates a fault, and
the protective relay will trip the circuit breaker to isolate the transformer from the system.
• Buchholz Protection: Buchholz protection is used to protect transformers against faults
caused by internal faults, such as a short circuit or a ground fault. The protection is based
on detecting the presence of gas in the transformer oil. If gas is detected, it indicates a
fault, and the protective relay will trip the circuit breaker.

Protection of Motors:

• Overload Protection: Overload protection is provided to protect motors against

overheating due to excessive current. The protection is based on measuring the current
flowing through the motor and tripping the protective device if it exceeds a predetermined
limit.
• Short Circuit Protection: Short circuit protection is used to protect motors against faults
caused by short circuits. The protection is based on measuring the current flowing
through the motor and tripping the protective device if it exceeds a predetermined limit.
• Earth Fault Protection: Earth fault protection is used to protect motors against faults
caused by a ground fault. The protection is based on detecting the presence of a current
flowing to ground. If a ground fault is detected, the protective relay will trip the circuit
breaker to isolate the motor from the system.

[18] What is earth fault? Explain any one method of earth fault protection.[*]

Earth fault : An earth fault is a type of electrical fault that occurs when a live conductor
accidentally comes into contact with the earth or ground. This can happen due to various
reasons such as damaged insulation, accidental contact with a metal object or tool, or due to
moisture or humidity.

One method of earth fault protection is the use of residual current devices (RCDs) or ground
fault circuit interrupters (GFCIs). RCDs or GFCIs are commonly used in households and
RTP
57 | E E E - P A R T ( A )

workplaces to protect against electrical hazards. They are installed in the electrical
distribution board or outlet and can provide protection for the entire circuit or specific
appliances or equipment.These devices work by monitoring the current flowing through the
live and neutral conductors of an electrical circuit.RCDs or GFCIs are highly effective in
detecting and isolating earth faults, as they can trip within milliseconds of detecting an
imbalance in the current flow.If there is an imbalance in the current flow, indicating the
presence of a fault, the device will trip and disconnect the circuit from the power source..
They are also relatively inexpensive and easy to install, making them a popular choice for
earth fault protection.

[19] A proposed station has the following daily load cycle:

Time in 6-8 8-11 11-16 16-19 19-22 22-24 24-6

hours
Load in 20 40 50 35 70 40 20
MW
Draw the load curve and select suitable generator units from the 10,000, 20,000, 25,000,
30,000 kVA.
Prepare the operation schedule for the machines selected and determine the load factor from
the curve.

RTP
58 | E E E - P A R T ( A )

[20] What is power quality (P-Q)? Why maintaining power quality is important for the textile
industry?

Power quality (P-Q) refers to the characteristics of electrical power supply, including voltage,
current, frequency, and waveform, which can affect the performance and reliability of
electrical equipment and systems. Maintaining good power quality is crucial for the textile
industry, as it directly impacts the efficiency, productivity, and cost-effectiveness of textile
manufacturing processes.

In the textile industry, various electrical equipment such as spinning machines, weaving
looms, knitting machines, dyeing machines, and finishing machines are used extensively.
These machines require a stable and consistent power supply to operate optimally. Poor
power quality can lead to several issues that can adversely affect the textile manufacturing
processes, including:

• Voltage sags, surges, and interruptions caused by poor power quality can result in
unexpected downtime and production losses.
• Electrical equipment used in the textile industry, such as motors, drives, and electronic
controls, are sensitive to power quality issues. Poor power quality can cause damage to
these equipment and result in increased maintenance costs.
• Power quality issues can impact the performance of textile machines, resulting in
variations in process parameters, such as temperature, pressure, and speed, leading to
inconsistent product quality. This can result in higher rejection rates, increased waste, and
customer complaints.
• Poor power quality can also lead to increased energy consumption and reduced energy
efficiency.
• Textile manufacturers need to comply with various industry standards and regulations
related to product quality, safety, and environmental impact. Maintaining good power
quality is essential to meet these standards and regulations, which can have legal,
financial, and reputational implications.

Therefore, maintaining good power quality is critical for the textile industry to ensure smooth
and efficient operations, minimize downtime, reduce maintenance costs, improve product
quality, optimize energy consumption, and comply with industry standards and regulations.

[21] What are the major causes of falling PQ? What is the current market solution available
to maintain PQ?
There are several major causes of falling power quality (PQ) in electrical power systems,
which can result in various power quality issues. Some of the common causes of falling PQ
include:

• Voltage fluctuations, also known as voltage sags or dips, occur when there is a sudden
decrease in voltage followed by a quick recovery.
• Voltage swells, also known as voltage surges, occur when there is a sudden increase in
voltage followed by a quick recovery.
• Harmonics are distorted currents or voltages that are multiples of the fundamental
frequency of the power system (e.g., 50 Hz or 60 Hz).

RTP
59 | E E E - P A R T ( A )

• Transients, also known as voltage spikes or surges, are brief, high-amplitude disturbances
in the electrical system that can last for a short duration
• Unbalanced voltages occur when there is an unequal distribution of voltage among the
phases in a three-phase power system.
• Frequency variations occur when the power system frequency deviates from the standard
nominal frequency (e.g., 50 Hz or 60 Hz.)
• Power factor is a measure of the efficiency with which electrical power is used in a
system. Poor power factor, which is caused by reactive power, can result in increased
energy consumption, reduced system efficiency, and additional burden on the power
system
There are hundreds of manufacturers making thousands of different Power Quality solutions
today.The categories of these solutions are:
• Utility based solutions for the substation level.
• User based solution for whole facility protection.
• User load level solutions for specific loads.
• Designed in solutions, built in by the equipment manufacturer to reduce the sensitivity to
power quality problems.

[22] Importance of electrical equipment grounding.[*******]

Grounding of electrical equipment is essential to ensure the safety of personnel and to protect
electrical systems from damage. Here are some of the reasons why grounding is important:
• Protection against electric shock: Grounding provides a path for fault current to flow in
case of a short circuit, thereby protecting personnel from electric shock.
• Protection against equipment damage: Grounding helps to prevent damage to electrical
equipment by providing a low-impedance path for fault current to flow, which helps to
clear the fault quickly and prevent damage to the equipment.
• Minimizes electrical noise: Grounding helps to reduce electrical noise, which can cause
interference with other equipment and affect signal quality.
• Provides a stable voltage reference: Grounding helps to provide a stable voltage reference
for electrical systems, which is important for accurate measurement and control.
• Compliance with safety standards: Grounding is required by various safety standards and
regulations, such as the National Electrical Code (NEC) in the United States, to ensure
safe operation of electrical systems.

RTP