LINEAR INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

TASK-2
FACULTY: PRADHEEP T
LAB SLOT: L3+L4
THEORY SLOT: G2+TG2

BY AYUSH GURTU (17BEC0185)

 Design of Precision Rectifiers using Op Amp 741
AIM: To design half wave and full wave precision rectifiers using op-amps.
Components & Equipments required:
1. Operational amplifier - µA 741
2. Resistors
3. Diodes
4. Signal generator
5. CRO
6. Bread board
7. Power supply
8. Connecting wires

Circuit Diagram:
Full Wave Rectifier:
Half Wave Rectifier:
Theory:
Diodes: A diode is a two-terminal electronic component that conducts current primarily in
one direction (asymmetric conductance); it has low (ideally zero) resistance in one direction,
and high (ideally infinite) resistance in the other. A diode vacuum tube or thermionic diode
is a vacuum tube with two electrodes, a heated cathode and a plate, in which electrons can
flow in only one direction, from cathode to plate. A semiconductor diode, the most
commonly used type today, is a crystalline piece of semiconductor material with a p–n
junction connected to two electrical terminals. Semiconductor diodes were the first
semiconductor electronic devices.
Current–voltage characteristic: A semiconductor diode's behavior in a circuit is given by its
current–voltage characteristic, or I–V graph (see graph below). The shape of the curve is
determined by the transport of charge carriers through the so-called depletion layer or
depletion region that exists at the p–n junction between differing semiconductors. When a
p–n junction is first created, conduction-band (mobile) electrons from the N-doped region
diffuse into the P-doped region where there is a large population of holes (vacant places for
electrons) with which the electrons "recombine". When a mobile electron recombines with
a hole, both hole and electron vanish, leaving behind an immobile positively charged donor
(dopant) on the N side and negatively charged acceptor (dopant) on the P side. The region
around the p–n junction becomes depleted of charge carriers and thus behaves as an
insulator.
However, the width of the depletion region (called the depletion width) cannot grow
without limit. For each electron–hole pair recombination made, a positively charged dopant
ion is left behind in the N-doped region, and a negatively charged dopant ion is created in
the P-doped region. As recombination proceeds and more ions are created, an increasing
electric field develops through the depletion zone that acts to slow and then finally stop
recombination. At this point, there is a "built-in" potential across the depletion zone.
Reverse bias: If an external voltage is placed across the diode with the same polarity as the
built-in potential, the depletion zone continues to act as an insulator, preventing any
significant electric current flow (unless electron–hole pairs are actively being created in the
junction by, for instance, light; see photodiode). This is called the reverse bias phenomenon.

Forward bias: If the polarity of the external voltage opposes the built-in potential,
recombination can once again proceed, resulting in a substantial electric current through
the p–n junction (i.e. substantial numbers of electrons and holes recombine at the junction).
For silicon diodes, the built-in potential is approximately 0.7 V (0.3 V for germanium and 0.2
V for Schottky). Thus, if an external voltage greater than and opposite to the built-in voltage
is applied, a current will flow and the diode is said to be "turned on" as it has been given an
external forward bias. The diode is commonly said to have a forward "threshold" voltage,
above which it conducts and below which conduction stops. However, this is only an
approximation as the forward characteristic is smooth (see I-V graph above).

Zener Diode: It is mainly a special property of the diode rather than any special type of
equipment. The special property of the diode is that there will be a breakdown in the circuit
if the voltage applied across a reversely biased circuit. This does not allow the current to
flow across it. When the voltage across the diode is increased, temperature also increases
and the crystal ions vibrate with greater amplitude and all these leads to the breakdown of
the depletion layer. The layer at the junction of ‘P’ type and ‘N’ type. When the applied
voltage exceeds a specific amount Zener breakdown takes place.

Characteristics of a Zener Diode: The above diagram shows the V-I characteristics of the
Zener diode behaviour. When the diode is connected in forward bias diode acts as a normal
diode. When the reverse bias voltage is greater than a predetermined voltage then the
Zener breakdown voltage occurs. To get breakdown voltage sharp and distinct doping is
controlled and the surface imperfections are avoided. In the V-I characteristics above Vz is
the Zener voltage. And also, the knee voltage because at this point the current is the current
is very rapid.
1.
Output:

Explanation: The left op-amp attempts to keep its negative input at the same voltage as the
positive input (which is at ground). When the input signal is negative, the op-amp output
goes positive to keep the – input at ground. The 1k-ohm resistor(R3) has no current flowing
through it, because both ends are at ground, so it can be ignored. The second op-amp and
two 1k resistors act as a unity-gain inverting amplifier to make the output equal to the
input, only positive.
When the input signal is positive, both op-amps attempt to keep their – input at ground. In
order to do this, all four resistors on the left must have a voltage drop equal to the input
signal. The 1k-ohm resistor(R3) must have as much current flowing through it as the 1k
resistor to its upper left(R2) (because it has the same voltage drop and resistance), so the
upper right resistor must make up the difference. This requires the circuit’s output to be at
the same level as the input signal, with the same polarity.
So, the output voltage is always positive but has the same magnitude as the input voltage.
Applications:
• Full Wave Rectifier is used to detect the amplitude of the modulating radio signal.
• Full Wave rectifier circuits are also used to supply steady and polarized Dc voltage in
electric welding.
• Full Wave Rectifier circuits are widely used in power supply for various appliances, as
they are capable of converting the High AC voltage into Low DC voltage.
• Full-wave rectifiers are also used for powering up the devices which work on DC
voltage like motor and led.
2.
a. i.

Output:

Explanation: The op-amp attempts to keep its negative input at the same voltage as the
positive input (which is at ground). When the input signal is positive, the op-amp output
goes negative to keep the – input at ground. No current flows through the resistor or diode,
so the output of the circuit is equivalent to 0.7V due to forward biasing of the diode. When
the input signal is negative, the op-amp output goes positive, and current flows through the
upper resistor and diode to bring the – input to ground so the output must be the negative
of the input.
ii) When the Zener diode is reversed:

Explanation: The op-amp attempts to keep its negative input at the same voltage as the
positive input (which is at ground). When the input signal is negative, the op-amp output
goes positive to keep the negative input at ground. No current flows through the resistor or
diode, so the output of the circuit is equivalent to 0.7V due to forward biasing of the diode.
When the input signal is positive, the op-amp output goes negative, and current flows
through the upper resistor and diode to bring the – input to ground so the output must be
the negative of the input.
Application:
1. Half Wave Rectifier can be used to obtain the desired level of dc voltage by using Step up
or Step-down Transformer.
2. Mostly used as a detector in an AM radio, where the output is not only DC, but an audio
signal. The current is so small that there is no advantage to a more complex rectifier.
3. Used in pulse generator circuits, firing circuits.
2.b.

Output:

Explanation: When the input signal is negative, the op-amp output goes positive to keep the
negative input at ground. Zener diode D2 is in forward bias condition and D1 is in reverse
bias condition, so the output of the circuit is equivalent to the voltage breakdown due to D1
diode. When the input signal is positive, the op-amp output goes negative, and Zener diode
D1 is in forward bias condition and D2 is in reverse bias condition, so the output of the
circuit is equivalent to the voltage breakdown due to D2 diode. Therefore, this circuit acts as
a full wave rectifier.
Applications:
Using a rectifier in the power supply helps in converting AC to DC power supply. Bridge
rectifiers are widely used for large appliances, where they are capable of converting high AC
voltage to low DC voltage. It is used in voltage multiplier and For demodulating the
amplitude of a modulated signal.
Result:
1.
2.(a)
(i) & (ii)
2.(b)
References:
1. https://www.elprocus.com/zener-diode-circuit-working-applications/
2. http://www.studentsheart.com/half-wave-rectifier-working/