CHAPTER FOUR

SEMICONDUCTOR DIODES AND

THEIR
APPLICATION
 Diode
• Diode is made from a small piece of semiconductor material,
• half is doped as a P region and half is doped as an N region with a PN
junction and depletion region in between
• The P region is called the anode and is connected to a conductive
terminal.
• The N region is called the cathode and is connected to a second
conductive terminal.
• The basic diode structure and schematic symbol are shown in below.
 Forward Bias
• To bias a diode, apply a dc voltage across it
• . Forward bias is the condition that allows current through the PN
junction. Figure below
• This happened when:
 The negative side of VBIAS is connected to the N region of the diode
and the positive side is connected to the P region. This is one
requirement for forward bias.
 A second requirement is that the bias voltage, VBIAS, must be
greater than the barrier potential (0.7V for silicon).
 Cont…
• The negative side of the bias voltage source “pushes” the free electrons, which
are the majority carriers in the N region, toward the PN junction. This flow
of free electrons is called electron current
• The bias-voltage source imparts sufficient energy to the free electrons for
them to overcome the barrier potential of the depletion region and move
on through into the P region
• Unlike charges attract, the positive side of the bias-voltage source attracts
the valence electrons toward the left end of the P region.
• The holes in the P region provide the medium or “pathway” for these n
valence electrons to move through the P region. The valence electrons move
from one hole to the next toward the left
 The Effect of Forward Bias on the Depletion
Region
• As more electrons flow into the depletion region, the number of positive ions
is reduced.
• As more holes effectively flow into the depletion region on the other
side of the PN junction, the number of negative ions is reduced.
• This reduction in positive and negative ions during forward bias causes
the depletion region to narrow, as indicated in Figure below .
 Reverse Bias

• Reverse bias is the condition that essentially prevents current through the
diode.
• Notice that the positive side of VBIAS is connected to the N region of the diode
and the negative side is connected to the P region.
• Also note that the depletion region is shown much wider than in forward
bias or equilibrium
 Cont…
• Because unlike charges attract, the positive side of the bias-voltage
source “pulls” the free electrons, which are the majority carriers in
the N region, away from the PN junction.
• As the electrons flow toward the positive side of the voltage source,
additional positive ions are created.
• This results in a widening of the depletion region and a depletion of
majority carriers
 Cont…
• Reverse Current The extremely small current that exists in reverse
bias after the transition current dies out is caused by the minority carriers
in the N and P regions that are produced by thermally generated
electron-hole pairs.

• Reverse Breakdown Normally, the reverse current is so small that it can

be neglected. However, if the external reverse-bias voltage is
increased to a value called the breakdown voltage, the reverse current
will drastically increase.
 Voltage-current characteristic of a diode

.The Ideal Diode Model: The ideal model of a diode is the least
accurate approximation and can be represented by a simple switch.

• When the diode is forward-biased, it ideally acts like a closed (on)

switch,

• When the diode is reverse-biased, it ideally acts like an open (off) switch as
shown in figure below.
 Cont..
The Practical Diode Model: The practical model includes the barrier
potential.

When the diode is forward-biased, it is equivalent to a closed switch in series

with a small equivalent voltage source (VF) equal to the barrier potential (0.7
V) with the positive side toward the anode, as indicated in Figure below.
 Cont..
The Complete Diode Model: The complete model of a diode is the most accurate
approximation and includes the barrier potential, the small forward dynamic
resistance and the large internal reverse resistance
• The reverse resistance is taken into account because it provides a path for
the reverse current, which is included in this diode model.
• When the diode is forward-biased, it acts as a closed switch in series with
the equivalent barrier potential voltage (VB) and the small forward dynamic
resistance as indicated in Figure below.
• When the diode is reverse-biased, it acts as an open switch in parallel with the
large internal reverse resistance
 Rectifier
The rectifier converts the ac input voltage to dc voltage..

Half-wave rectifier

Because of their ability to conduct current in one direction and block current in the
other direction, diodes are used in circuits called rectifiers that convert ac voltage into
dc voltage.

Let’s examine what happens during one cycle of the input voltage using the ideal model
for the diode. When the sinusoidal input voltage (Vin) goes positive, the diode is
forward-biased and conducts current through the load resistor, as shown in figure below.
The current produces an output voltage across the load RL, which has the same
shape as the positive half-cycle of the input voltage
 Cont….

When the input voltage goes negative during the second half of its cycle, the
diode is reverse-biased. There is no current, so the voltage across the load
resistor is 0 V, as shown in Figure below. The net result is that only the positive
half-cycles of the ac input voltage appear across the load. Since the output
does not change polarity, it is a pulsating dc voltage with a frequency of 60 Hz.
 Average Value of the Half-Wave Output
Voltage

The average value of the half-wave rectified output voltage is the

value you would measure on a dc voltmeter.

This equation shows that VAVG is approximately 31.8% of Vp for a half-

wave rectified voltage
 Cont…
Full-wave Rectifiers
Although half-wave rectifiers have some applications, the full-wave rectifier
is the most commonly used type in dc power supplies.
Center-Tapped Full-Wave Rectifier Operation
A center-tapped rectifier is a type of full-wave rectifier that uses two diodes
connected to the secondary of a center-tapped transformer, as shown in
Figure below. The input voltage is coupled through the transformer to the
center-tapped secondary. Half of the total secondary voltage appears between
the center tap and each end of the secondary winding.
 Cont…
For a positive half-cycle of the input voltage

For a negative half-cycle of the input voltage

 Effect of the Turns Ratio on the Output Voltage

• In any case, the output voltage of a center-tapped full-wave rectifier

is always one-half of the total secondary voltage less the diode drop, no
matter what the turns ratio is.
 CHAPTER FIVE
SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES
 Transistors
• Two basic types of transistors are

 the bipolar junction transistor (BJT),

 the field-effect transistor (FET).

 bipolar junction transistor (BJT
• The BJT is used in two broad areas
As a linear amplifier to boost or amplify an
electrical signal and
As an electronic switch.
 Principle of operation and characteristics of BJT

• The BJT is constructed with three doped semiconductor regions

separated by two PN junctions.
• The three regions are called emitter, base, and collector. Physical
representations of the two types of BJTs are shown below.
 Cont…
• The base region is lightly doped and very thin compared to
• The heavily doped emitter and
• The moderately doped collector regions.
 Basic BJT operations

• We will focus on NPN BJTs. The operation of the PNP is the same as for the
NPN except that the roles of the electrons and holes, the bias voltage
polarities, and the current directions are all reversed. PNP = -NPN!
• In practice, NPN transistors are much more popular than PNP transistors
because electrons move faster in a semiconductor. As a results, a NPN
transistor has a faster response time compared to a PNP transistor.
• At the first glance, a BJT looks like 2 diodes placed back to back or front-to
front as shown in figure Since each junction has two possible states of operation
(forward or reverse bias) the BJT with its two junctions has four possible states
of operation.
 Active (Linear) mode(E<B<C)
In order for the transistor to operate in active mode, the two junctions must have the
correct dc bias voltages.
The base-emitter (BE) junction is forward biased and
The base-collector (BC) junction is reverse biased.
From the left side of the diagram, electrons exit the emitter supply and enter the N
emitter. Here they are the majority carrier. The base-emitter depletion creates an energy
hill just as it did with a single PN junction. As long as there is sufficient potential from
the emitter supply, the electrons will be pushed into the base.
 Cont..
• These electrons will attempt to recombine with the majority base
holes, however, because the base is physically thin and lightly
doped, only a small percentage of the injected electrons will
recombine with base holes and exit the base terminal back to
ground. This current is called the base current or the
recombination current.
• Meanwhile, the vast majority of the remaining electrons (95% to
over 99%) will find their way to the base-collector depletion region
and then to the collector. Once in the collector, the electrons are
again the majority carrier and flow back to the positive terminal of
the collector power supply.
 2. Saturation mode(E<B>C)
• Assuming the transistor was operating in the active mode(E<B<C). In the
case of active mode as the base current increase, the number of emitted
electrons from emitter increases in the collector region and combines with
the electrons in the collector region.
• The increased number of collected electrons in the collector region attracted
towards the positive terminal of the collector terminal. As a result, the collector
current increased (iC=βiB).
• When the collector current increases the collector to emitter voltage gets
decreased (VCE=VCC-ICRC). When the VCE reaches at the point which is called
VCE(sat) which is approximately slightly below 0.7 V the base to collector (VCB)
will be forward biased. Because VCB =VCE - VBE =<0.7v -0.7v =<-0v. this
means E<B>C. Most of the time the value of VCE(sat) is 0.2V or 0.3V. At this
situation IC no longer increased even though IB is increases (iC≠βiB).
• The maximum current IC (IC(sat) flows to the collector terminal even
though the polarity is reversed from reverse biased into forward biased. Because
the forward biased of VCB(<-0V) is too low (weak) to pull the collected
electrons from the collector region into base region.
• So the (IC(sat) flows in the direction as in the active mode even though VCB is
forward biased.
 Cutoff (E>B<C)
• When VBE is less than 0.7v the base current IB=0, the transistor is
in the cutoff region of its operation.
• Under this condition, there is a very small amount of collector
leakage current, ICEO, due to thermally produced carriers.
• Because ICEO is extremely small, it will usually be neglected in circuit
analysis so that VCE=VCC.
• In cutoff, neither the base-emitter nor the base-collector junctions are
forward biased. The subscript CEO represents collector to emitter with
the base open.
 Breakdown(E>B>C)
• When VCE (VCE =VBE+VCB) reaches a sufficiently high voltage, IC
increases rapidly. A transistor should never be operated in this breakdown
region.
• The transistor can be damaged if
 A large positive voltage is applied across the CE junction
(breakdown region), or
 Product of IC*VCE exceed power handling of the transistor, or
 A large reverse voltage is applied between any two terminals.
 The I-V characteristics of the four modes of
operations
• The operating point of a BJT can be found graphically using the concept of
a load line.
• For BJTs, the load line is the relationship between iC and VCE.
• The intersection of the load line with the BJT characteristics
represent a pair of IC and VCE values which satisfy both conditions and,
therefore, is the operating point of the BJT (often called the Q point or
Quiescent point).
 SILICON CONTROLLED RECTIFIERS (SCR) or THYRISTOR

• A silicon controlled rectifier is a semiconductor device that acts as a true

electronic switch.
• it can change alternating current and at the same time can control the amount of
power fed to the load.
• SCR combines the features of a rectifier and a transistor.
CONSTRUCTION
• When a pn junction is added to a junction transistor the resulting three pn junction
device is called a SCR.
• Ordinary rectifier (pn) and a junction transistor (npn) combined in one unit to
form pnpn device.
• Three terminals are taken : one from the outer p- type material called anode a second
from the outer n- type material called cathode K and the third from the base of
transistor called Gate.
 WORKING

• Load is connected in series with anode the anode is always kept at positive
potential w.r.t cathode.
• No voltage applied to the gate, J2 is reverse biased while J1 and J3 are FB . J1 and
J3 is just in npn transistor with base open .no current flows through the load RL
and SCR is cut off.
• if the applied voltage is gradually increased a stage is reached when RB junction
J2 breakdown .the SCR now conducts heavily and is said to be ON state.
the applied voltage at which SCR conducts heavily without gate voltage is
called Break over Voltage.
WHEN GATE IS OPEN
Cont…
• The SCR can be made to conduct heavily at smaller applied voltage by
applying small positive potential to the gate.
• J3 is FB and J2 is RB the electron from n type material start moving across
J3 towards left holes from p type toward right. electrons from j3 are
attracted across junction J2 and gate current starts flowing. as soon as gate
current flows anode current increases.
• the increased anode current in turn makes more electrons available at J2
breakdown and SCR starts conducting heavily. the gate looses all control
if the gate voltage is removed anode current does not decrease at all.
• The only way to stop conduction is to reduce the applied voltage to zero.

WHEN GATE IS POSITIVE W.R.T CATHODE.

 Cont…..
• BREAKOVER VOLTAGE
It is the minimum forward voltage gate being open at which SCR
starts conducting heavily i.e turned on
• PEAK REVERSE VOLTAGE( PRV)
It is the maximum reverse voltage applied to an SCR without conducting
in the reverse direction.
• HOLDING CURRENT
It is the maximum anode current gate being open at which SCR is
turned off from on conditions.
• FORWARD CURRENT RATING
It is the maximum anode current that an SCR is capable of passing without
destruction
• CIRCUIT FUSING RATING
It is the product of of square of forward surge current and the time of
duration of the surge
VI CHARACTERISTICS OF SCR
 Triac
• The triac can be considered as two thyristors connected in antiparallel as shown in
below.

• The single gate terminal is common to both thyristors. The main terminals MT1
and MT2 are connected to both p and n regions of the device and the current path
through the layers of the device depends upon the polarity of the applied voltage
between the main terminals.

• The device polarity is usually described with reference to MT1, where the term
MT2+ denotes that terminal MT2 is positive with respect to terminal MT1
 cont…
• The on-state characteristic of the triac is similar to that of a thyristor and is
shown in Figures and Table below summarise the different gate triggering
configurations for triacs.
• Due to the physical layout of the semiconductor layers in a triac, the values of
latching current (IL ), holding current (IH) and gate trigger current (IGT) vary
slightly between the different operating quadrants.
• In general, for any triac, the latching current is slightly higher in the second
(MT2+, G-) quadrant than the other quadrants, whilst the gate trigger current is
slightly higher in fourth (MT2-, G+) fouth quadrant.
 Cont…

• For applications where the gate sensitivity is critical and where the
device must trigger reliably and evenly for applied voltages in both
directions it may be preferable to use a posive and a negative current
triggering circuit.
• If the gate drive circuit is arranged so that only quadrants 1 and 3 are
used (i.e. G operation) then the triac is never used in the fourth
quadrant where IGT is highest.
 The diac
• It is also worthwhile to consider the operation and characteristics of the diac in
the context of multilayer bipolar devices.
• The diac is more strictly a transistor than a thyristor, but has an important role
in many thyristor and triac triggering circuits.
• As shown in the characteristic of figure below, the diac blocks applied voltages
in either direction until the breakover voltage, VBO is reached. The diac voltage
then breaks back to a lower output voltage VO.
• Important diac parameters are breakover voltage, breakover current and
breakback voltage as shown in the figure below
 Unijunction Transistor(UJT)
• The Unijunction Transistor is solid state three terminal device that can be
used in gate pulse, timing circuits and trigger generator applications to
switch and control either thyristors and triacs for AC power control type
applications.

• Unijunction Transistor has the name of a transistor, its switching

characteristics are very different from those of a conventional bipolar or
field effect transistor as it can not be used to amplify a signal but instead is
used as a ON-OFF switching transistor.

• UJT’s have unidirectional conductivity and negative impedance

characteristics acting more like a variable voltage divider during breakdown.
 Cont…
• The UJT consists of a single solid piece of N-type semiconductor material forming
the main current carrying channel with its two outer connections marked as Base 2 (
B2) and Base 1 ( B1). The third terminal marked as the Emitter ( E ) is located along
the channel.
• The emitter terminal is represented by an arrow pointing from the P-type emitter to
the N-type base. From the equivalent circuit ,that the N-type channel basically
consists of two resistors RB2 and RB1 in series with an equivalent (ideal) diode, D
representing the p -n junction connected to their center point.
• Resistance RB1 is given between the Emitter, E and terminal B1, while resistance
RB2 is given between the Emitter, E and terminal B2. As the physical position of the
p-n junction is closer to terminal B2 than B1 the resistive value of RB2 will be less
than RB1.
 Cont..
• These two series resistances produce a voltage divider network between the two
base terminals of the unijunction transistor and since this channel stretches from
B2 to B1 when a voltage is applied across the device, the potential at any point
along the channel will be in proportion to its position between terminals B2 and
B1. The level of the voltage gradient therefore depends upon the amount of
supply voltage.
• When used in a circuit, terminal B1 is connected to ground and the Emitter
serves as the input to the device.
• Suppose a voltage VBB is applied across the UJT between B2 and B1 so that B2
is biased positive relative to B1.
• With zero Emitter input applied, the voltage developed across RB1 (the lower
resistance) of the resistive voltage divider can be calculated as
Unijunction Transistor RB1 Voltage
 Cont…
• For a unijunction transistor, the resistive ratio of RB1 to RBB shown above is
called the intrinsic stand-off ratio and is given the Greek symbol: η (eta). Typical
standard values of η range from 0.5 to 0.8 for most common UJT’s
• If a small positive input voltage which is less than the voltage developed across
resistance, RB1( ηVBB) is now applied to the Emitter input terminal, the diode p-
n junction is reverse biased, thus offering a very high impedance and the device
does not conduct. The UJT is switched “OFF” and zero current flows.
• However, when the Emitter input voltage is increased and becomes greater than
VRB1 (or ηVBB + 0.7V, where 0.7V equals the p-n junction diode volt drop) the p-
n junction becomes forward biased and the unijunction transistor begins to
conduct. The result is that Emitter current, ηIE now flows from the Emitter into
the Base region.
• The effect of the additional Emitter current flowing into the Base reduces the
resistive portion of the channel between the Emitter junction and theB1 terminal.
This reduction in the value of RB1 resistance to a very low value means that the
Emitter junction becomes even more forward biased resulting in a larger current
flow. The effect of this results in a negative resistance at the Emitter terminal.
 Reading Assignment
• FET
• Operational amplifiers
• Timer 555
End