ET (Section ‘B’) Notes

1) What is Doping and why is it required? Classify the semiconductors.

Ans. The process of adding impurity atoms to the pure semiconductor is called DOPING and
the material being added is called as DOPANT.

Semiconductors can be classified as:

• Intrinsic Semiconductor
• Extrinsic Semiconductor
 2) Explain the I-V characteristics of a PN junction diode. Sketch and label the I-V
characteristics of PN junction diode and Zener diode on the same graph.
Ans. A semiconductor diode is a p-n junction diode. It is a two-terminal device that conducts
current only in one direction.
I-V characteristics of PN junction diode and Zener diode on the same graph:

3) What do you mean by ‘Breakdown’? Explain the Avalanche Breakdown in detail.

Ans.
 4) Differentiate between the causes of Avalanche breakdown and the Zener breakdown.
Ans.
Avalanche Breakdown Zener Breakdown
It occurs because of the collision of high It occurs because of a high electric field causing
velocity electrons with the atoms and covalent electrons in the valence band to come in the
bonds. conduction band.
The potential barrier gets destroyed. The potential barrier doesn’t get destroyed.
The regions need to be lightly doped for this. The regions need to be highly doped for this.
The voltage magnitude (VBR) is relatively
The voltage magnitude (VZ) is relatively low.
high.
The VI curve is not as sharp as Zener
The VI curve has a sharper slope.
breakdown
It occurs in normal PN junction diode. It occurs in Zener diode.
Its depletion region is thick. Its depletion region is thin.
The electric field is weak. The electric field is strong.
It generates holes as well as electrons. This breakdown generates electrons.
Its ionization is due to the collision. Its ionization is due to the electric field.
It is harmful for the diode. It is not harmful for the diode.

5) With the help of a neat circuit diagram and waveforms, explain the operation of a
Full Wave Rectifier circuit.
Ans. What is Centre Tapped Full Wave Rectifier?
A type of rectifier which is designed by using two diodes as well as a centre tapped
transformer for converting the whole AC signal to DC is called centre tapped FWR. This is called
as “full wave centre tapped” because there are two full cycles in one complete cycle of AC voltage.
This means that it produces twice as much DC voltage as a half-wave rectifier would produce from
an equivalent AC source.
Centre Tap Full Wave Rectifier Circuit:
The circuit diagram of the centre tap full wave rectifier circuit is shown below. This
rectifier circuit can be designed with an AC source, two diodes, a load resistor & a centre
tapped transformer. As shown in the following circuit diagram, the two diodes are connected to
the two ends of a centre-tapped transformer.
 The AC source within the circuit is given to the centre-tapped transformer’s main winding.
A centre tap or extra wire which is connected at the centre of the secondary (minor) winding will
divide the i/p voltage into 2 parts.

The secondary winding’s higher portion is coupled to the ‘D1’ diode whereas the lower
portion is coupled to the ‘D2’ diode. Both the diodes are simply connected to a load resistor (RL)
using a centre tapped transformer. Usually, the centre tap is considered as the ground point or zero
voltage reference.

How Does a Centre-Tapped Full-Wave Rectifier Works?

The operation of the centre tapped full wave rectifier is, once i/p voltage (Vin) is applied
to the rectifier, then the centre-tapped transformer’s secondary winding will divide this applied
voltage into 2 parts positive & negative.

Throughout the +ve half i/p voltage cycle, the ‘A’ end turns into positive & ‘B’ end turns
into negative. Therefore, the D1 diode will become forward biased & D2 diode will become
reverse biased. These two D1 and D2 diodes will conduct at the same time. So, once the D1 diode
conducts, then the D2 diode will not conduct. Whenever the ‘D1’ diode is conducting, the flow of
current ‘I’ will be throughout this diode D1 and load resistor ‘RL’.

Throughout the -ve half-cycle of the i/p voltage, the ‘B’ end will become positive whereas
the ‘A’ end will become negative to make the ‘D2’ diode forward biased & ‘D1’ diode reverse
biased. The flow of current throughout the load resistor ‘RL’ is in a similar direction throughout
both the +ve & the -ve half cycle of the applied i/p voltage. Therefore, the DC o/p voltage like
Vout = i RL can be obtained across the RL

The waveforms for the applied input voltage, the flow of current throughout the load & the o/p
voltage obtained across the load. The centre tapped full wave rectifier waveforms are shown
below:
 6) What is ‘Rectification’? With the help of a neat circuit diagram and waveforms,
explain the operation of a Bridge Wave Rectifier circuit.
Ans. Rectification is a process of converting the alternating voltage or current into the
corresponding direct voltage or current. The AC is converted to DC in three steps by using
rectifier, filter and voltage regulator circuits.
Bridge Wave Rectifier
Many electronic circuits require a rectified DC power supply to power various electronic
basic components from the available AC mains supply. Rectifiers are used to convert an AC power
to a DC power. Among the rectifiers, the bridge rectifier is the most efficient rectifier circuit.
We can define bridge rectifiers as a type of full-wave rectifier that uses four or more diodes
in a bridge circuit configuration to efficiently convert alternating (AC) current to a direct (DC)
current.

Construction:
The construction of a bridge rectifier is shown in the figure below. The bridge rectifier
circuit is made of four diodes D1, D2, D3, D4, and a load resistor RL. The four diodes are connected
in a closed-loop configuration to efficiently convert the alternating current (AC) into Direct
Current (DC). The main advantage of this configuration is the absence of the expensive centre-
tapped transformer. Therefore, the size and cost are reduced.

The input signal is applied across terminals A and B, and the output DC signal is obtained
across the load resistor RL connected between terminals C and D. The four diodes are arranged in
such a way that only two diodes conduct electricity during each half cycle. D1 and D3 are pairs that
conduct electric current during the positive half cycle/. Likewise, diodes D2 and D4 conduct
electric current during a negative half cycle.

Working:
When an AC signal is applied across the bridge rectifier, terminal A becomes positive
during the positive half cycle while terminal B becomes negative. This results in diodes D1 and
D3 becoming forward biased while D2 and D4 becoming reverse biased.
 The current flow during the positive half-cycle is shown in the figure below:

During the negative half-cycle, terminal B becomes positive while terminal A becomes
negative. This causes diodes D2 and D4 to become forward biased and diode D1 and D3 to be
reverse biased.
The current flow during the negative half cycle is shown in the figure below:

From the figures given above, we notice that the current flow across load resistor RL is the
same during the positive and negative half-cycles. The output DC signal polarity may be either
completely positive or negative. In our case, it is completely positive. If the diodes’ direction is
reversed, we get a complete negative DC voltage.
Thus, a bridge rectifier allows electric current during both positive and negative half cycles
of the input AC signal. The output waveforms of the bridge rectifier are shown in the below figure:
7) Draw and explain the circuit of a Zener Diode working as a Voltage Regulator.
Ans.

A Zener diode is one of the specially designed diodes that predominately works in reverse
biased conditions. They are more heavily doped than ordinary diodes, due to which they have
narrow depletion region. While regular diodes get damaged when the voltage across them
exceeds the reverse breakdown voltage, Zener diodes work exclusively in this region. The
depletion region in Zener diode goes back to its normal state when the reverse voltage gets
removed. This particular property of Zener diodes makes it useful as a voltage regulator.

Let us first comprehend how a Zener diode works before we understand Zener diode as a
voltage regulator.

When we apply a reverse voltage to a Zener diode, a negligible amount of current flows
through the circuit. When a voltage higher than Zener breakdown voltage is applied, Zener
breakdown occurs. Zener breakdown is a phenomenon where a significant amount of current
flows through the diode with a negligible drop in voltage. When we increase the reverse voltage
further, the voltage across the diode remains at the same value of Zener breakdown voltage
whereas the current through it keeps on rising as seen in the graph above. Here in the graph Vz
refers to the Zener breakdown voltage. Zener breakdown voltage typically can range from 1.2
V to 200 V depending on its application.

The exciting part of this diode is that we can choose the Zener diode with a suitable
breakdown voltage to work as a voltage regulator in our circuit. For example, we want that the
voltage across a load in our circuit does not exceed, let’s say, 12 volts. Then we can select a
Zener diode with a breakdown voltage of 12 volts and connect it across the load. Then even if
the input voltage exceeds that value, the voltage across the load will never exceed 12 volts.

Let us try to understand that with a circuit diagram.

Here, the Zener diode is connected across the load RL. We want the voltage across the load
to be regulated and not cross the value of Vz. Depending on our requirement, we choose the
suitable Zener diode with a Zener breakdown voltage near to the voltage we require across the
load. We connect the Zener diode in reverse bias condition. When the voltage across the diode
exceeds the Zener breakdown voltage, a significant amount of current starts flowing through
the diode. As the load is in parallel to the diode, the voltage drop across the load is also equal
to the Zener breakdown voltage. The Zener diode provides a path for the current to flow and
hence the load gets protected from excessive currents. Thus the Zener diode serves two
purposes here: Zener diode as a voltage regulator as well as it protects the load from excessive
current.
8) Explain the working principle of a Light Emitting Diode (LED).
Ans.
9) What is ‘Dark Current’? Explain the working principle of a Photodiode.
Ans. The Photodiode is a PN junction semiconductor diode which is always operated in the
reverse biased condition. The construction of a photodiode and its circuit symbols are as shown
in Fig. 2.22.1. (a) and (b) respectively.
10) Convert the hexadecimal number DAD.007 to its equivalent decimal, binary and octal
numbers.
Ans.
11) Draw the symbols of NPN and PNP transistors. List out the different regions of
operation of BJT.
Ans.
12) With the help of a neat, labelled diagram, explain the working of an NPN transistor.
Ans.
13) State the drawbacks of the binary number system. Classify the different logic gates.
Ans. The major drawback of binary number is that it is difficult to read and write for humans
because of large number of binary bits for an equivalent decimal number. Also, as binary
numbers are longer than the actual text, it occupies more space on a device. Though it is easy
to process these numbers, it still takes a while to process a lengthy binary number.
14) Convert the hexadecimal number 4CA to its equivalent decimal, binary and octal
numbers.
Ans.
 15) With the help of a neat, labelled block diagram, explain the working of an Air
Conditioning System.
Ans. Air conditioning is the process of treating air in an internal environment to establish and
maintain required standards of temperature, humidity, cleanliness, and motion. This is how each
of these conditions is controlled:
1. Temperature: Air temperature is controlled by heating or cooling the air. Cooling technically
means the removal of heat, in contrast to heating, the addition of heat.
2. Humidity: Air humidity, the water vapour content of the air, is controlled by adding
(humidification) or removing (dehumidification) water vapour from the air.
3. Cleanliness: Air cleanliness or air quality is controlled by either filtration, the removal of
undesirable contaminants using filters or other devices or by ventilation, the introduction of outside
air into the space which dilutes the concentration of contaminants. Often both filtration and
ventilation are used in an installation.
4. Motion: Air motion refers to air velocity and to where the air is distributed. It is controlled by
appropriate air distributing equipment.
Sound control can be considered an auxiliary function of an air conditioning system even
though the system itself may be the cause of the problem.
COMPONENTS OF AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEMS:
Heat always travels from a warmer to a cooler area. In winter, there is a continual heat loss
from within a building to the outdoors. If the air in the building is to be maintained at a comfortable
temperature, heat must be continually supplied to the air in the rooms. The equipment that
furnishes the heat required is called a heating system.
In summer heat continually enters the building from the outside. In order to maintain the
room air at a comfortable temperature, this excess heat must be continually removed from the
room. The equipment that removes the excess heat is called a cooling system.
An air conditioning system may provide heating, cooling, or both. Most air conditioning
systems are used for either human comfort or for process control.
Most heating and cooling systems must have the following basic components:
1. A heating source that adds heat to a fluid (air, water, or steam).
2. A cooling source that removes heat from a fluid (air or water).
3. A distribution system (a network of ducts or piping) to carry the fluid to the rooms to
be heated or cooled.
4. Equipment (fans or pumps) for moving the air or water.
5. Devices (e.g., radiation) for transferring heat between the fluid and the room.
ALL-AIR AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEMS:
All-air systems use air to heat or cool rooms. They may also have the added capability of
controlling humidity and furnishing outdoor ventilation, which hydronic systems cannot do. A
typical all-air heating and cooling system is shown in the figure. Air is heated at the heat source
(1), such as a furnace. It may also be a coil circulating hot water, or steam, heated by a boiler. The
heated air is circulated by a fan (2) and travels to each room through supply air ducts (3). The
supply air enters the room through outlets called air diffusers or registers (4) that are designed to
provide proper air distribution in the room. When the warmed supply air enters the room, the room
is heated. A humidifier (10) may also be included to maintain a comfortable room humidity in
winter.

In summer, air is cooled when it flows over a cooling source (5), usually a coil of tubing
containing a fluid cooled by refrigeration equipment. When the cooled supply air enters the room,
the room is cooled. Because a room’s size is fixed, the same volume of air that enters the room
must also exit. This is usually accomplished by return air ducts (6). The air is then heated or cooled
again and recirculated. An outdoor air intake duct (7) may be provided for introducing fresh
outdoor air for increased air quality. Similarly, the same volume of air must be exhausted (8).
Provision may be made for cleaning the air with air filters (9) and for humidifying the air (10).

16) With the help of a neat, labelled block diagram, explain the working of a Microwave
Oven.
Ans. The microwave oven is an electrically controlled home appliance used for cooking. it uses
the principle of dielectric heating at a microwave frequency. The frequency of microwaves being
used is 2.45 GHz. The generated microwaves are bombarded on the food present in the cooking
cavity. Each food item has a specific water content in it. Water is dipolar in nature i.e.; every water
droplet has a positive charge on one end and a negative charge on the opposite end. When these
high frequency waves pass through the food, the water droplets start vibrating at the same 2.45
GHz frequency. Due to friction, heat is generated internally, and this is how the food is cooked.
Point to be noted is that dry things like metals, glass, plastic, which lack water molecules are not
affected by these microwaves and hence these dry things will not get heated.
1) The ‘System Control’ block controls the overall operation of the oven. This block accepts
the input from the front panel i.e., Cooking Program Input. Depending upon the type of
food and the duration of cooking, user gives the cooking program input. The system also
has a display to show the timing information as well as other menus or messages.
2) According to the program the system control drives the triggering circuits for switching
elements. the switching elements like Relay or TRIAC controls the power supplied to the
high voltage transformer. The 230 Volts mains power is controlled by the switching
elements. these elements operate such that only the required amount of power is given to
the high voltage transformer.
3) The power indirectly depends upon the heat to be induced and the period of cooking. the
high voltage transformer generates about 3000 Volts required for the magnetron tube.
4) The magnetron tube converts this high voltage into the electromagnetic waves of 2.45 GHz.
These microwaves are carried to the cooking cavity with the help of waveguide.
Sometimes, the waveguides are built in within the cooking cavity itself.
5) The food item is kept on the turntable which keeps on rotating so that the microwave energy
is incident on all parts of the food item uniformly. Some microwave oven models have
rotating antennas which disperse the microwaves throughout all areas of cooking cavity.
6) Some microwaves directly penetrate the food item whereas others bounce off the metal
surface and flooring of the cavity. These reflected microwaves are again guided onto the
food item. Thus, all the microwave energy is transferred to the food item from various
directions of the cooking cavity.
7) The interlock and protection circuits protect the system from overheating and other faults.
When the door of the cooking cavity is opened, the protection circuit shuts down the
switching of power today high voltage transformer. Similarly, when the timer expires the
microwave energy is stopped.
8) The ‘System Control’ block consists of a microprocessor which supervises the overall
operation of oven and hence it is the heart of the microwave oven appliance.

17) Convert the decimal number 178.96 to its equivalent binary number, octal number,
and hexadecimal number.
Ans.
18) Convert the 4-digit octal number 1573 to its equivalent binary number, hexadecimal
number, and decimal number.
Ans.
19) Explain the construction and working principle of a PMMC Instrument in detail.
Ans.
 20) Explain the working of a ‘Washing Machine’ in detail along with its features.
Ans.

Many modern washing machines now use microcomputer to control their various
functions, replacing the electromechanical controllers used in earlier models. Washing Machines
are meant to have all the options or features with most user-friendly interface.

Since a domestic washing machine is a very high-volume product, the design should
attempt to minimize the amount of hardware required. Hence, the actual sensors, actuators and
other units are placed in a very compact structure. Drum motor is the most important unit of any
washing machine. At various stages of the washing cycle, the drum is required to rotate at different
speeds. These include: a low speed of about 30 revolutions per minute (rpm) while clothes are
washed: an intermediate speed of about 90 rpm while the water is pumped out and a high speed of
either 500 or 1000 rpm to spin dry the clothes. Washing machines use a fixed inductive sensor to
produce a pulse each time it is passed by a magnet which rotates with the drum. This produces one
pulse per revolution of the drum which can be used to determine its speed. The speed of the motor
will be controlled by the power dissipated in it. The simplest way of speed control is to use a
TRIAC.
WASHING MACHINE HARDWARE:
The different peripherals consist of the following units:
1. temperature sensor which senses the washing water temperature. (The analog/digital converter
changes the analog values to binary numbers).
2. safety cut-out switch.
3. keyboard for program selection.
4. water level gauge.
5. motor for washing drum.
6. power switches for motor, heater, etc.
7. heater for washing water.
8. water inlet valve.
9. water suction pump.
10. control lamps and indicators.
The units listed above i.e., the washing machine as well as its mechanical components,
electrical units and electronic components are known as ‘Hardware’.

WASHING CYCLE:
The push-button keyboard enables the desired program to be selected. The control — i.e.,
the microcomputer — checks firstly that the safety cut-out is in the ON position. The water is then
admitted (valve opened) and the water level is constantly monitored. When the required quantity
of water has been provided the valve closes. The water temperature is measured, and the heater is
switched until the water reaches the required temperature. In the meantime, the washing powder
is admitted from a container and the hardness of water is noted, at the same time the drum motor
is switched on so that the dirty washing is evenly moved through the water. After the required time
has elapsed, according to the selected program, the motor is switched to high-speed spinning and
the suction pump is switched on to remove the washing water and the rinsing water to waste. At
the end of the washing cycle the machine switches off and provides a signal to indicate this.