1. What is a crystal diode ? Explain its rectifying action.

pn junction is known as a semi-conductor or *crystal diode.

It is interesting to see that behaviour of diode is like a switch. When the diode is forward biased, it
behaves like a closed switch and connects the a.c. supply to the load RL. However, when the diode is
reverse biased, it behaves like an open switch and disconnects the a.c. supply from the load RL. This
switching action of diode permits only the positive half-cycles of input a.c. voltage to appear across RL.

More details see 3 page of books.

2. Draw the graphic symbol of crystal diode and explain its significance. How the polarities of crystal
diode are identified ?

Normal diod picture.

The significance of this symbol is that it represents the physical structure of the diode, including
the p-n junction and the two terminals. The horizontal line represents the p-n junction, with the
arrow pointing in the direction of current flow (from the p-type material to the n-type material)

The polarities of a crystal diode can be identified by looking at its physical structure or
by using a multimeter to measure its voltage drop. Here are two common methods to
identify the polarity of a crystal diode:

1. Physical structure: One end of the crystal diode has a band (ring or bar) around it
that indicates the cathode side. The other end is the anode side. The cathode is
the negative terminal, and the anode is the positive terminal. If the diode is a
through-hole type, the cathode end is usually marked with a stripe on the body
of the diode.
2. Multimeter: Using a multimeter, set to the diode test mode, you can identify the
polarity of a diode by measuring the voltage drop across it. The voltage drop
across a forward-biased diode is typically around 0.6 to 0.7 volts for silicon
diodes, and around 0.2 to 0.3 volts for germanium diodes. To test the diode,
connect the multimeter positive lead to the anode (positive terminal) of the diode
and the negative lead to the cathode (negative terminal) of the diode. If the
diode is forward biased, the multimeter will show a low voltage drop, indicating
that the current is flowing through the diode. If the diode is reverse biased, the
multimeter will show a high voltage reading, indicating that the current is
blocked by the diode.
It's important to note that if the diode is damaged or burned out, it may not behave as
expected, and the voltage readings may not be accurate. In that case, it may be
necessary to replace the diode.

3. What do you understand by the d.c. and a.c. resistance of a crystal diode? How will you determine
them from the V-I characteristic of a crystal diode ?

Sometimes it's easiest to just use a multimeter to test for polarity. Turn the multimeter to the diode
setting (usually indicated by a diode symbol), and touch each probe to one of the LED terminals. If the
LED lights up, the positive probe is touching the anode, and the negative probe is touching the cathode.

04. Draw the equivalent circuit of a crystal diode

05. Discuss the importance of peak inverse voltage in rectifier service

The importance of peak inverse voltage is shown in the reverse bias condition of the diode. Because,  if
this value exceeds the diode might get damaged. When the diode is non-conducting, the reverse voltage
gets across the diode.

06.

Describe a half-wave rectifier using a crystal diode.

Complete step by step solution:

Step I:
A Half Wave Rectifier consists of a single p-n junction diode connected in series to the
load resistor. A diode is to electric current like a one-way valve, it allows electric current
to flow in only one direction. This property of the diode is used in creating simple
rectifiers. AC voltage is applied to the primary side of the transformer and at the winding
a low voltage source is attached to the diode. The secondary coil is connected to the
junction diode by a load resistance.
Step II:
During the positive half cycle, the current is made to pass through the primary coil and
an induced e.m.f. is set up in the secondary coil due to mutual induction. The circuit is
forward bias during the positive half cycle. This is because the direction of induced
e.m.f. is such that it makes the upper end of the secondary coil positive and lower end
negative. The output current flows in the circuit along with some voltage drop.
Step III:
During the negative half-cycle, the process is completely reversed. This means the
upper end of the secondary coil is negative and the lower end is positive, thus making
the circuit reverse biased. Since it is now an open circuit, so no current passes and no
output voltage is obtained.
Note:
When an alternating current is passed through a half-wave rectifier, only half cycle
continues. The other half cycle is blocked on the D.C. side. The ratio of d.c power
output to a.c. power input is called rectifier efficiency which is approximately 40.6%.

07. Derive an expression for the efficiency of a half-wave rectifier.

08. . With a neat sketch, explain the working of (i) Centre-tap full-wave rectifier (ii) Full-wave bridge
rectifie
rectifier (ii) Full-wave bridge rectifie

book 16 page to 18 page..

9. Derive an expression for the efficiency for a full-wave rectifier.

10. Write a short note about the nature of rectifier output.

Rectifiers yield a  unidirectional but pulsating direct current; half-wave rectifiers produce far more ripple
than full-wave rectifiers, and much more filtering is needed to eliminate harmonics of the AC frequency
from the output.

11. What is a ripple factor ? What is its value for a half-wave and full-wave rectifier

What Is Ripple Factor? The ripple factor is defined as.  The ratio of the RMS value of an alternating
current component in the rectified output to the average value of rectified output. The ripple factor is
denoted as γ. It is a dimensionless quantity and always has a value less than unity.

The value of ripple factor in  full wave rectifier is 0.482 while in half wave rectifier it is about 1.21. The
output voltage and the output power obtained in full wave rectifiers are higher than that obtained using
half wave rectifiers.
12. Describe the action of the following filter circuits : (i) capacitor filter (ii) choke input filter (iii)
capacitor input filter

A capacitor-input filter is a filter circuit in which the first element is a capacitor connected in parallel with
the output of the rectifier in a linear power supply.  The capacitor increases the DC voltage and decreases
the ripple voltage components of the output.

Working of Choke Filter or L-section filter.  When the pulsating DC signal from the output of the rectifier
circuit is feed into choke filter, the AC ripples present in the output DC voltage gets filtered by choke coil.
The inductor has the property to block AC and pass DC.

A capacitor-input filter is a filter circuit in which the first element is a capacitor connected in parallel with
the output of the rectifier in a linear power supply. The capacitor  increases the DC voltage and decreases
the ripple voltage components of the output.

13.

13. What is a zener diode ? Draw the equivalent circuit of an ideal zener in the breakdown region.

A Zener diode not only  allows current to flow from the anode to the cathode but also in the reverse
direction. Due to this functionality, Zener diodes are the most commonly used semiconductor diodes. In
this article, let us learn the function of Zener diodes along with their construction, operation and more.

14. Explain how zener diode maintains constant voltage across the load.

If the input voltage increases, the diode maintains a constant voltage across the load by  absorbing the
extra current and keeping the load current constant.
Discussion Questions

1. Why are diodes not operated in the breakdown region in rectifier service ?

In rectifiers, diodes do not operate in the breakdown region because  the diode has a high chance of
getting burnt or damaged as there is an increase in the magnitude of the current flowing through the
diode.

2. Why do we use transformers in rectifier service ?

The transformer in a rectifier power supply circuit serves several purposes. 1-  used to change the voltage
level from the 115VAC to another level, either higher of lower, to accomadate the needs of the rest of the
circuit. 2- provides isolation between the power mains and the circuit power for safety reasons.

3. Why is PIV important in rectifier service ?

Diodes must have PIV rating that is higher than the maximum
supplied voltage. Thus, PIV rating is important to know how
much maximum voltage can be applied across the diode safely
without damaging the diode
4. Why is zener diode used as a voltage regulator ?
The Zener diode is often in use as a voltage regulator, primarily  because the voltage drop across the
diode is constant. Furthermore, the supply voltage must exceed the Zener voltage for the circuit to
operate. Thereby, any electronic component connected in parallel with these diodes will have the same
applied voltage.

5. Why is capacitor input filter preferred to choke input filter ?

The ripple factor is better. It has a low DC output voltage. It has

a high DC output voltage. The ripple reduction occurs in load
current.