UNIT- II

PART-A:
Zener Diode– Zener diode Characteristics
Voltage shunt regulator, Temperature Effects
Rectifier Circuits– half-wave, full-wave and bridge rectifier circuits
Rectifier with a filter capacitor, C-L-C filter
Clipping and Clamping Circuits– limiter circuit
The clamped capacitor, voltage doubler
Special Diode Types–
Schottky barrier diode
Varactor diode
Light emitting diode (LED)
Photo diode
UJT

PART-B:
Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs):
Physical Operation - simplified structure and modes of operation,
Operation of the NPN transistor
Operation of the PNP transistors
Modes of transistor: cut-off, active, and saturation modes
V-I Characteristics- of different configurations - graphical representation of transistor
characteristics,
Dependence of collector current on collector voltage - the Early Effect.
 PART-A
ZENER DIODE:
Zener diode is a silicon semiconductor device that permits current to flow
in either a forward or reverse direction. The diode consists of a special, heavily
doped p-n junction, designed to conduct in the reverse direction when a certain
specified voltage is reached. This voltage is called as Zener voltage. The Zener
diode has a well-defined reverse-breakdown voltage, at which it starts conducting
current, and continues operating continuously in the reverse-bias mode without
getting damaged. Additionally, the voltage drop across the diode remains constant
over a wide range of voltages, a feature that makes Zener diodes suitable for use in
voltage regulation. The symbol for zener is shown below.

Figure: Zener diode symbol

Working:
When the diode is connected in forward bias, this diode acts as a normal diode
but when the reverse bias voltage is greater than a predetermined voltage zener
breakdown voltage takes place. To make the breakdown voltage sharp and distinct, the
doping is controlled and the surface imperfections are avoided. In the V-I
characteristics above Vz is the zener voltage, we can say. It is also the knee voltage
because at this point the current is the current is very rapid.
ZENER DIODE CHARACTERISTICS:
V-I characteristics of zener diode is shown in the following figure.

Figure: Volt-Ampere Characteristics of Zener diode

Application of Zener Diode:
One of the popular applications of zener diode is voltage regulator.
ZENER DIODE AS VOLTAGE REGULATOR:
The equivalent circuit of the voltage regulator is including the Zener resistance.
The output voltage will change with a change in the Zener diode current as shown in
below figure.

Figure: A Zener diode voltage regulator circuit

A voltage regulator can be defined as the two types.

The first is the source regulation (or) Line regulation and is a measure of the
change in output voltage with a change in voltage.
The second is the load regulation and is a measure of the change in output
voltage with a change in load current.
The Source Regulation is defined as

Where vL is the change in output voltage with a change of vPS in the input
voltage.
The Load Regulation is defined as

Where vL no load is the output voltage for zero load current and vL full load is the
output voltage for the maximum rated output current.

BREAKDOWN MECHANISMS:
The critical value of the voltage, at which the breakdown of a P-N junction
diode occurs, is called the breakdown voltage. The breakdown voltage depends on the
width of the depletion region, which, in turn, depends on the doping level. The
junction offers almost zero resistance at the breakdown point.
 There are two mechanisms by which breakdown can occur at a reverse biased P-N
junction:
1. Avalanche breakdown
2. Zener breakdown.
Avalanche breakdown is because of avalanche multiplication and zener breakdown
is because of direct rupture of covalent bonds.
1. Avalanche breakdown:
The minority carriers, under reverse biased conditions, flowing through the
junction acquire a kinetic energy which increases with the increase in reverse voltage.
At a sufficiently high reverse voltage, the kinetic energy of minority carriers becomes
so large that they knock out electrons from the covalent bonds of the semiconductor
material. As a result of collision, the liberated electrons in turn liberate more electrons
and the current becomes very large leading to the breakdown of the crystal structure
itself. This phenomenon is called the avalanche breakdown.

2. Zener Breakdown:
When the diode is reverse biased, the kinetic energy of the electrons increases
and they move at a high velocity. The high-velocity electrons collide with other atoms
and give rise to free electrons. These free electrons, in turn, give rise to a high value of
reverse saturation current. This is known as Zener breakdown. Both these breakdowns
occur in Zener diodes.

Fig: Volt-Ampere Characteristics of Si and Ge Zener Diode

Zener Breakdown versus Avalanche Breakdown:
Zener Breakdown Avalanche Breakdown

The process in which the electrons
move across the barrier from the
valence band of p-type material to the
conduction band of n-type material is
known as Zener breakdown.
The process of applying high voltage
and increasing the free electrons or
electric current in semiconductors and
insulating materials is called an
avalanche breakdown.

This is observed in Zener diodes This is observed in Zener diode having

having a Zener breakdown voltage Vz a Zener breakdown voltage Vz greater
of 5 to 8 volts. than 8 volts.

The valence electrons are pulled into
conduction due to the high electric
field in the narrow depletion region.
The valence electrons are pushed to
conduction due to the energy imparted
by accelerated electrons, which gain
their velocity due to their collision with
other atoms.

The increase in temperature decreases The increase in temperature increases

the breakdown voltage. the breakdown voltage.

The VI characteristics of a Zener The VI characteristic curve of the

breakdown have a sharp curve. avalanche breakdown is not as sharp as
the Zener breakdown.

It occurs in diodes that are highly It occurs in diodes that are lightly
doped. doped.

TEMPERATURE EFFECTS:
The dependence of the zener voltage VZ on temperature is specified in terms of
its temperature coefficient TC, or temco as it is commonly known, which is usually
expressed in mV/°C. The value of TC depends on the zener voltage, and for a given
diode the TC varies with the operating current. Zener diodes of the voltage VZ are
lower than about 5 V exhibit a negative TC. On the other hand, zeners with higher
voltages exhibit a positive TC. The TC of a zener diode with a V Z of about 5 V can be
made zero by operating the diode at a specified current.
Another commonly used technique for obtaining a reference voltage with low
temperature coefficient is to connect a zener diode with a positive temperature
coefficient is 2mV/°C with a forward-conducting diode. Since the forward-conducting
diode has a voltage drop of 0.7 V and a TC of about −2 mV/°C, the series combination
will provide a voltage of (VZ + 0.7) with a TC of about zero.
RECTIFIER CIRCUITS:
Rectifier is an electronic device that converts AC to pulsating DC using one or
more PN junction diodes. The presence of AC is called as ‘ripple’.All the electronic
devices require dc supply for their operation. In electronic devices there is a circuit
that converts ac supply to dc supply called as Linear Mode Power Supply (LMPS) or
Regulated Power Supply (RPS). The circuit that converts dc to dc and dc to ac is
called Switch Mode Power Supply (SMPS).

Fig: Block diagram of Regulated Power Supply

Step down Transformer:

From the above figure, V1>V2 and N1>N2.

The relationship between V1, V2, N1, and N2 is given by

Example: Let V1=230V, N1:N2=10:1, then

CLASSIFICATION OF RECTIFIERS:
Based on one or more number of diodes used in the circuit, rectifiers are
classified into two types. They are

1. Half wave Rectifier

2. Full wave Rectifier

1. Half wave rectifier:

This rectifier uses only one diode. It converts the applied AC voltage to
pulsating DC voltage during positive half cycle of the applied ac voltage.

Figure: Half wave rectifier

Operation:

Figure: For positive Half cycle of HWR

During positive half cycle the anode of the diode becomes positive with respect
to cathode so that the diode is operated in forward bias. The resistance offered by the
diode in forward bias is zero and it acts as a short circuit. Therefore the entire applied
voltage will appear across the load resistor RL.

Let Vi=Vm Sinθ, Vo= Vi=Vm Sinθ, 0<θ<π

 Figure: For negative Half cycle of HWR

During negative half cycle of the anode of the diode becomes negative with
respect to cathode so that the diode is operated in Reverse bias. The resistance offered
by the diode in Reverse bias is infinite and the diode acts as a open circuit. Hence
there is no voltage across the load resistor RL.

Vo= 0, 0<θ<2π

Input and output waveforms:

Rectifier parameters:

Some of the important parameters of rectifier are

1. Efficiency

2. Ripple factor

3. Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV)

4. Output Frequency

5. Form Factor

6. Peak Factor

7. Transformer Utilization Factor (TUF)

8. Voltage Regulation
1. Efficiency:

It is defined as the ratio of dc output power to ac input power.

(i) dc output power:

Where

Since,

(ii) ac input power:

The efficiency of HWR is 40.6% and is a low value.

2. Ripple Factor:

It is defined as the ratio of rms value of ac component to dc component.

We know that,

Where

Here, compared to dc component, ac component is 1.21 times more.

3. Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV):

It is the maximum voltage that appears across the reverse biased PN diode.
4. Output Frequency (fo):

Output frequency is the frequency of the ripple.

5. Form Factor:

It is defined as the ratio of rms value to avg value.

6. Peak Factor:

It is defined as the ratio of peak value to rms value.

7. Transformer Utilization Factor (TUF):

It is defined as the ratio of dc power output to rated ac power.

TUF=0.286 or 28.6%

8. Voltage Regulation:
Disadvantages of Half-Wave Rectifier:

1. The ripple factor is high.

2. The efficiency is low.
3. The Transformer Utilization factor is low.
Because of all these disadvantages, the half-wave rectifier circuit is normally not
used.
2. Full wave Rectifier:
In full wave rectifier two or four diodes are used. In full wave rectifier, it
allows both positive as well as negative half cycle at the output. Full wave rectifiers
are classified in two types, they are
(a) Centre tapped full wave rectifier.
(b) Full wave bridge rectifier.
(a) Centre tapped full wave rectifier:
This rectifier uses 2 diodes. The circuit diagram for centre tapped full wave
rectifier is shown in the following figure.

Figure: Circuit diagram for Centre tapped full wave rectifier

Operation:
For positive half cycle of the input, point A becomes positive with respect to
point B, hence diode D1 is in ON state and diode D2 is in OFF state. As result output
voltage across load is because of positive half cycle. The operation for positive half
cycle is shown below.
 Figure: For positive half cycle
For negative half cycle of the input, point B becomes positive with respect to
point A, hence diode D1 is in OFF state and diode D2 is in ON state. As result output
voltage across load is because of negative half cycle. For positive and negative half
cycles, the current flows in the same direction through the load. The operation for
negative half cycle is shown below.

Figure: For negative half cycle

Input and output waveforms:
Rectifier parameters:
1. Efficiency (η):
It is defined as the ratio of dc output power to ac input power.

(i) dc output power:

Where

Since,

(ii) ac input power:

The efficiency of CT-FWR is 81.2%.

2. Ripple Factor:

It is defined as the ratio of rms value of ac component to dc component.

We know that,

Compared to HWR, here ac ripple factor is less, means more dc at the output.
3. Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV):

It is the maximum voltage that appears across the reverse biased PN diode.

4. Output Frequency (fo):

Output frequency is the frequency of the ripple.

5. Form Factor:

It is defined as the ratio of rms value to avg value.

6. Peak Factor:

It is defined as the ratio of peak value to rms value.

7. Transformer Utilization Factor (TUF):

It is defined as the ratio of dc power output to rated ac power.

Primary TUF of the transformer is same as that of the efficiency of CT-FWR.

Primary TUF = 0.81

Secondary TUF=2 X TUF of HWR = 2 X 0.286 = 0.572

8. Voltage Regulation:

Advantages:
1. Efficiency is high.
2. Ripple factor is low.
3. TUF is high.
Disadvantages:
1. It is very difficult to identify the exact centre of the secondary winding.
2. High PIV.

Full wave bridge rectifier:

The use of centre tap Transformer in full wave rectifier can be eliminated by
using a bridge rectifier. Here it uses four diodes. Two diodes will operate at a time for
each half cycle.

Figure: Circuit diagram for Full wave bridge rectifier

Operation:

For positive half cycle, point A becomes positive with respect to point B. As a
result diodes D2, D3 are ON and diodes D1, D4 are OFF. Then the voltage is taken
across the load. Current direction is through D2, RL and D3. The circuit for positive
half cycle is shown in the following figure.

Figure: For positive half cycle

For negative half cycle, point B becomes positive with respect to point A. As a
result diodes D2, D3 are OFF and diodes D1, D4 are ON. Then the voltage is taken
across the load. Current direction is through D4, RL and D1. The circuit for negative
half cycle is shown in the following figure.

Figure: For negative half cycle

The direction of current through RL is same for both half cycles so that the
output is also same for both of cycles.
Input and output waveforms:

Rectifier parameters:
1. Efficiency (η):
It is defined as the ratio of dc output power to ac input power.

(i) dc output power:

Where

Since,
(ii) ac input power:

The efficiency of CT-FWR is 81.05% and is a low value.

2. Ripple Factor:

It is defined as the ratio of rms value of ac component to dc component.

We know that,
 Where

Compared to HWR, here ac ripple factor is less, means more dc at the output.

3. Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV):

It is the maximum voltage that appears across the reverse biased PN diode.

4. Output Frequency (fo):

Output frequency is the frequency of the ripple.

5. Form Factor:

It is defined as the ratio of rms value to avg value.

6. Peak Factor:

It is defined as the ratio of peak value to rms value.

7. Transformer Utilization Factor (TUF):

It is defined as the ratio of dc power output to rated ac power.

Here TUF is same as that of efficiency.

8. Voltage Regulation:

Advantages:

1. No need of centre tapped transformer.

2. PIV is less.

3. High TUF.

Disadvantages:

1. It requires 4 diodes.
Comparison of rectifier circuits:

Parameter HWR CT-FWR FWBR

No. of diodes used 1 2 4

Efficiency 40.6% 81% 81%

Ripple factor 1.21 0.48 0.48

PIV Vm 2Vm Vm

fo fin 2 fin 2 fin

TUF 28.6% 69.2% 81.2%

Form factor 1.57 1.11 1.11

Peak Factor 2 1.414 1.414

FILTERS:

The output of a rectifier contains both DC components and ac components. The

unwanted AC components present in the output are called "ripples". In order to
remove the ripple from the output of a rectifier, we use a device or circuit called filter.
The most popular filters are

1. Inductor filter
2. Capacitor filter
3. LC filter or L-Section filter
4. CLC filter or Π section filter

Fig: Block diagram of Filter

THE RECTIFIER WITH A FILTER CAPACITOR:

The pulsating nature of the output voltage produced by the rectifier circuits
makes it unsuitable as a dc supply for electronic circuits. A simple way to reduce the
variation of the output voltage is to place a capacitor across the load resistor. It will be
shown that this Filter Capacitor is used to reduce the variations in the rectifier output
voltage.

Fig: Rectifier with a Filter Capacitor and resultant output waveform

The circuit consists of a centre-tapped transformer, followed by the rectifier

formed by two diodes D1 and D2, and finally the load R with a capacitor filter C. The
circuit is designed such that the current through the load is always in the same
direction during both the half cycles. Assume that the capacitor is not connected
initially. Due to the centre-tap rectifier, during the positive half cycle of the input Vs,
A is positive with respect to B, hence diode D1 will be forward biased and D2 will be
reverse biased. This results in the current flowing from A-D1-R-B-A. In negative half
cycle, C is positive with respect to B. This makes C positive with respect to B causing
diode D2 to get forward biased making the current flow from C-D2-R-B-C. Thus in
both the half cycles the current through R flows in the same direction resulting in
pulsating DC across R.

From the above waveform, T2 >> T1, means T2 ≈ T/2

Here, charge gained by the capacitor = Charge lost by the capacitor

(i) Charge gained by the capacitor =

-------(1)

(ii) Charge lost by the capacitor

-------(2)

From eq.(1) and (2), we get

The rms value of a triangular signal for the output of capacitor is given by,

In capacitor filter, ripple factor can be decreased either by increasing capacitor

value or RL.
RECTIFIER WITH A C-L-C FILTER:

This is a capacitor filter followed by a LC filter. This filter is also called as π

filter. The ripple rejection capability of π filter is very good. The high voltage can be
attained at the o/p of the filter because the whole input voltage comes into view across
the input of the C1 capacitor. The voltage drop across the C2 capacitor & choke coil is
pretty small. Therefore, this is the main benefit of Pi capacitor as it offers high voltage
gain. However additionally to the high o/p voltage, the pi filter’s voltage regulation is
extremely poor. This is due to the decreased output voltage by the increase in the flow
of current throughout the load.

Fig: Rectifier with a CLC Filter r and resultant output waveform

The voltage of the pi filter can be expressed as

Vr = Idc/2fc
When C =C1 in the pi filter, then the RMS value of o/p voltage can be
expressed as
Vr rms = Vr / π√2
Substitute the value of ‘Vr’ in the above expression
Vr rms = Vr / π√2
= 1 / π√2 * Idc/2fC1
= Idc Xc1√2
Here, Xc1 = 1/2 ω c1 = 1/4 πfc1
The above equation is the i/p capacitor’s reactance at 2nd harmonic distortion.
The ripple voltage can be attained by multiplying Xc2/XL
Now V’r rms = Vr rms Xc2/XL
= Idc Xc1√2 * Xc2/XL
The ripple factor formula of the pi filter is
γ = V’r rms /Vdc
= Idc Xc1 Xc2 √2/Vdc XL
= Idc Xc1 Xc2 √2/Idc XL
= Idc Xc1 Xc2√2/Idc RLXL
= Xc1 Xc2 √2/ RLXL
γ = √2/RL * 1/2 ω c1* 1/2 ω c2* 1/2 ω L
= √2/8 ω3 C1 C2LRL

CLIPPING AND CLAMPING CIRCUITS:

Diodes can be used in wave shaping circuits that either limit or “clip” portions
of a signal, or shift the dc voltage level. These circuits are called Clippers and
Clampers Circuits. These circuits are nonlinear applications of the diodes.
LIMITER (or) CLIPPER CIRCUITS:
Clipper circuits also called limiter circuits are used to eliminate portions of a
signal that are above or below a specified level. For example, the half-wave rectifier is
a clipper circuit, since all voltages below zero are eliminated. A simple application of
a clipper is to limit the voltage at the input to an electronic circuit so as to prevent
breakdown of the transistors in the circuit. The circuit may be used to measure the
frequency of the signal, if the amplitude is not an important part of the signal. The
general voltage transfer characteristics of a limiter circuit as shown in the figure.

Figure: General voltage transfer characteristics of a limiter circuit

 The limiter is a linear circuit if the input signal is in the range V−O /Av ≤ Vi ≤
V+O /Av, where Av is the slope of the transfer curve. If Av ≤ 1 then the diode
circuits, the circuit is a Passive Limiter. If Vi > V+O /Av, the output is limited to a
maximum value of V+ O. Similarly, if Vi < V−O /Av, the output is limited to a
minimum value of V−O. The general transfer curve of a double limiter in both the
positive and negative peak values of the input signal are clipped. Various
combinations of V+O and V−O are possible. Both parameters one may be positive
while the other negative, as indicated in the figure. If either V−O approaches minus
infinity or V+ O approaches plus infinity, then the circuit reverts to a single limiter.
SINGLE-DIODE CLIPPER CIRCUIT:
In a single-diode clipper circuit the diode D1 is off as long as Vi < VB + Vγ .
With D1 off, the current is approximately zero, the voltage drop across R is essentially
zero, and the output voltage follows the input voltage. When Vi > VB + Vγ , the diode
turns on, the output voltage is clipped, and vO equals VB + Vγ . The output signal is
shown in Figure (b). In this circuit, the output is clipped above VB + Vγ .

Figure: Single-diode clipper: (a) circuit and (b) output response

DOUBLE LIMITER (OR) PARALLEL-BASED CLIPPER:
Other clipping circuits can be constructed by reversing the diode, the polarity
of the voltage source, or both Positive and negative clipping can be performed
simultaneously by using a Double Limiter or a Parallel-based clipper.
The Parallel-based Clipper is designed with two diodes and two voltage
sources oriented in opposite directions. The input and output signals are also shown in
the figure.

Figure: A parallel-based diode clipper circuit and its output response

CLAMPERS:
Clamper shifts the entire signal voltage by a dc level. In steady state, the
output waveform is an exact replica of the input waveform, but the output signal is
shifted by a dc value that depends on the circuit. The sinusoidal input voltage signal is
assume that the capacitor is initially uncharged. During the first 90 degrees of the
input waveform, the voltage across the capacitor follows the input, and Vc = Vi
(assuming that rf = 0 and Vγ = 0). After Vi and Vc reach their peak values, vI begins
to decrease and the diode becomes reverse biased. Ideally, the capacitor cannot
discharge, so the voltage across the capacitor remains constant at Vc = VM. By
Kirchhoff’s voltage law
Vo = −Vc + Vi = − VM + VM sin ωt
or
Vo = VM (sinωt − 1)

Figure: Action of a diode clamper circuit: (a) a typical diode clamper circuit,
(b) The sinusoidal input signal, (c) the capacitor voltage, and
(d) the output voltage

The capacitor and output voltages are shown in Figures (c) and (d). The output
voltage is “clamped” at zero volts, that is, Vo ≤ 0. In steady state, the wave shapes of
the input and output signals are the same, and the output signal is shifted by a certain
dc level compared to the input signal.
THE CLAMPED CAPACITOR OR DC RESTORER:

The basic peak-rectifier circuit of the output is taken across the diode rather
than across the capacitor is circuit with an important application of this circuit is
called a Dc Restorer is shown in figure. This circuit is fed with a square wave the
polarity in which the diode is connected the capacitor will charge to a voltage VC with
the polarity indicated in figure and equal to the magnitude of the most negative peak
of the input signal. Subsequently the diode turns off and the capacitor retains its
voltage indefinitely. If the input square wave has the arbitrary levels −6 V and +4 V,
then VC will be equal to 6 V.
The output voltage VO is given by
VO = V I + V C
It follows that the output waveform will be identical of the input except that it
is shifted upward by VC volts. In our example the output will be a square wave with
levels of 0 V and +10 V.

Figure: The clamped capacitor or dc restorer with a square-wave input and no

load

The operation of the circuit in figure is to note that because the diode is
connected across the output with the polarity shown it prevents the output voltage
from going below 0 V (by conducting and charging up the capacitor, thus causing the
output to rise to 0 V), but this connection will not constrain the positive excursion of
VO. The output waveform will therefore have its lowest peak clamped to 0 V, which
is why the circuit is called a Clamped Capacitor.

It should be obvious that reversing the diode polarity will provide an output
waveform whose highest peak is clamped to 0 V. In either case, the output waveform
will have a finite average value or dc component. This dc component is entirely
unrelated to the average value of the input waveform. As an application, consider a
pulse signal being transmitted through a capacitive coupled or ac-coupled system. The
capacitive coupling will cause the pulse train to lose whatever dc component it
originally had. Feeding the resulting pulse waveform to a clamping circuit provides it
with a well-determined dc component, a process known as dc restoration. This is why
the circuit is also called a Dc Restorer.

THE VOLTAGE DOUBLER:

A voltage doubler circuit is very similar to the full-wave rectifier, except that
two diodes are replaced by capacitors, and it can produce a voltage equal to
approximately twice the peak output of a transformer as shown in Figure.

Figure: A voltage doubler circuit

Figure: Equivalent circuit of the voltage doubler circuit: (a) negative input cycle
and (b) positive input cycle
 Figure (a) shows the equivalent circuit when the voltage polarity at the “top” of
the transformer is negative; Figure (b) shows the equivalent circuit for the opposite
polarity. In the circuit in Figure (a) the forward diode resistance of D2 is small the
capacitor C1 will charge to almost the peak value of VS. Terminal 2 on C1 is positive
with respect to terminal 1. As the magnitude of VS decreases from its peak value, C1
discharges through RL and C2. We assume that the time constant RL C2 is very long
compared to the period of the input signal. As the polarity of VS changes to that
shown in Figure (b) the voltage across C1 is essentially constant at VM with terminal 2
remaining positive. As VS reaches its maximum value, the voltage across C2
essentially becomes VM. By Kirchhoff’s voltage law, the peak voltage across RL is
now essentially equal to 2VM or twice the peak output of the transformer. The same
ripple effect occurs as in the output voltage of the rectifier circuits, but if C1 and C2 are

relatively large, then the ripple voltage Vr, is quite small.

There are also voltage tripler and voltage quadrupler circuits. These circuits
provide a means by which multiple dc voltages can be generated from a single ac
source and power transformer.

COMPARISON OF CLIPPER AND CLAMPER CIRCUITS:

SPECIAL DIODE TYPES:

SCHOTTKY DIODE (or) SCHOTTKY BARRIER DIODE:

Schottky diode is a metal-semiconductor junction diode that has less forward
voltage drop than the P-N junction diode and can be used in high-speed switching
applications and radio frequency (RF) applications.
A Schottky diode is a two terminal metal-semiconductor device that is formed
by diffusing an n-type semiconductor over a metal.
Both metal and n-type semiconductors have electrons as their majority carriers,
as in Schottky diode the majority charge carrier of electrons are responsible for
conduction. Hence it is a Unipolar Device.
Schottky diode is also known as Schottky barrier diode, surface barrier diode,
majority carrier device, hot-electron diode, or hot carrier diode.

Figure: Symbolic representation of Schottky diode

SCHOTTKY DIODE CONSTRUCTION:

In a normal p-n junction diode, a p-type semiconductor and an n-type

semiconductor are used to form the p-n junction. When a p-type semiconductor is
joined with an n-type semiconductor, a junction is formed between the P-type and N-
type semiconductor. This junction is known as P-N junction.
In Schottky diode, metals such as aluminium or platinum replace the P-type
semiconductor is joined with an n-type semiconductor, a junction is formed between
the metal and N-type semiconductor. This junction is known as metal-semiconductor
junction. The metallic region in the structure acts as an anode while the n-type
semiconductor region forms the cathode.

Figure: Semiconductor representation of Schottky diode

WORKING OF SCHOTTKY DIODE:

Schottky diode in which a lightly doped n-type silicon semiconductor is joined

with a metal electrode to produce junction is called a “metal-semiconductor junction”.
The width of the ms-junction will depend on the type of metal and semiconductor
material used, but when forward-biased, electrons move from the n-type material to
the metal electrode allowing current to flow. Thus current through the Schottky diode
is the result of the drift of majority carriers.
Since there is no p-type semiconductor material and therefore no minority
carriers (holes), when reverse biased, the diodes conduction stops very quickly and
changes to blocking current flow, as for a conventional pn-junction diode. Thus for a
Schottky diode there is a very rapid response to changes in bias and demonstrating the
characteristics of a rectifying diode.
Schottky Diode V-I Characteristics:
The characteristic curve of a Schottky diode is shown in the following figure.
Advantages:
There are many advantages of Schottky diode such as −
➢ It is a unipolar device and hence no reverse currents are formed.
➢ Its forward resistance is low.
➢ Voltage drops are very low.
➢ Rectification is fast and easy with the Schottky diode.
➢ There is no depletion region present and hence, no junction capacitance. So, the
diode gets to OFF position quickly.

Disadvantages:
➢ The only disadvantage of Schottky diode is that the reverse saturation current
of the diode is large.
Applications:
There are many applications of Schottky diode such as −
➢ Used as a detector diode
➢ Used as a Power rectifier
➢ Used in RF mixer circuits
➢ Used in power circuits
➢ Used as clamping diodes

VARACTOR DIODE:
Varactor diode can also be named as varicap or tuning circuit or voltage
variable capacitor. Varactor diode is operated under reverse bias as a variable
capacitor. The basic diagram for a varactor diode of a PN diode under reverse bias is
shown in the following figure.

Figure: Basic construction of a varactor diode

The symbol for varactor diode is shown below.

Figure: Symbol for varactor diode

 V is the applied voltage across the diode, W is the width of the depletion
region, ϵ is the permittivity of semi conductor and A is the area of the semi conductor,
then the capacitance is given by,

As the reverse voltage is increased, depletion width increases, as a result,

capacitance decreases.

Figure: Reverse voltage vs capacitance of a varactor diode

Applications of varactor diode:

Varactor diode is used in Radio, TV receiver, automatic frequency control.

LIGHT EMITTING DIODE (LED):

The Light emitting diode is a two-lead semiconductor light source. In 1962,
Nick Holon yak has come up with an idea of light emitting diode. The LED is a
special type of diode and they have similar electrical characteristics of a PN junction
diode. Hence the LED allows the flow of current in the forward direction and blocks
the current in the reverse direction. When the light emits in the forward biased, then it
is called as a light emitting diode.

Figure: Construction of LED Figure: LED symbol

WORKING:
The light emitting diode simply, we know as a diode. When the diode is
forward biased, then the electrons & holes are moving fast across the junction and
they are combining constantly. The working of LED is based on recombination. When
an electron combines with a hole, energy is released. This energy is called photonic
energy, which is not visible. The electrons dissipate energy in the form of heat for
silicon and germanium diodes. But in Galium-Arsenide-phosphorous (GaAsP) and
Galium-phosphorous (GaP) semiconductors, the electrons dissipate energy by
emitting photons. If the semiconductor is translucent, the junction becomes the source
of light as it is emitted, thus becoming a light emitting diode (LED).

Figure: Working of LED

The invisible light range is 100THz to 400THz and visible light range is
400THz to 750THz. Different colours are produced by using different materials at
different bias voltages and are shown below.
Advantages of LED’s

1. Very low voltage and current are enough to drive the LED.
2. Total power output will be less than 150 mille watts.
3. The response time is very less – only about 10 nanoseconds.
4. Miniature in size and hence light weight.
5. Have a rugged construction and hence can withstand shock and vibrations.
6. LED has a life span of more than 20 years.

Disadvantages

1. A slight excess in voltage or current can damage the device.

2. The temperature depends on the radiant output power and wavelength.

Applications:

➢ In motor vehicles and bicycle lights.

➢ In traffic light Indicators, signs and signals.
➢ In data displaying boards.
➢ In medical applications and toys.
➢ In light bulbs.
➢ Remote controls.

PHOTO DIODE:

A photodiode is a semiconductor device that converts light into an electrical

current. The current is generated when photons are absorbed in the photodiode. A
small amount of current is also produced when no light is present. Photodiodes may
contain optical filters, built-in lenses, and may have large or small surface areas.
Photodiodes usually have a slower response time as their surface area increases.

A photodiode is a p–n junction diode. When a photon of sufficient energy

strikes the diode, it creates an electron-hole pair. This mechanism is also known as the
inner photoelectric effect. If the absorption occurs in the junction's depletion region,
or one diffusion length away from it, these carriers are swept from the junction by the
built-in electric field of the depletion region. Thus holes move toward the anode, and
electrons toward the cathode, and a photocurrent is produced. The total current
through the photodiode is the sum of the dark current (current that is generated in the
absence of light) and the photocurrent, so the dark current must be minimized to
maximize the sensitivity of the device.

Figure: Photo Diode Symbol

 Figure: Working of Photo Diode

Figure: V-I Characteristics of Photo diode

Advantages:

1. The linearity of the diode is good with respect to incident light

2. Noise is low.
3. The response is wide spectral
4. Light weight and compact
5. Long life

Applications of Photo Diode:

1. These diodes are used in consumer electronics devices like smoke detectors,
compact disc players, and televisions and remote controls in VCRs.
2. In other consumer devices like clock radios, camera light meters, and street lights.
3. Photodiodes are also widely used in numerous medical applications like
instruments to analyze samples, detectors for computed tomography.
4. These diodes are much faster & more complex than normal PN junction diodes and
hence are frequently used in optical communications.
 PART-B
BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR
INTRODUCTION:
The first Junction Transistor was invented by William Shockley in 1951.The
Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) generally referred as a transistor. A transistor is a
semiconductor device used to amplify and switch electronic signals such as radio and
television signals. The vacuum tubes are used the amplification before the transistor.
The vacuum tubes are replaced by transistors because of the following
advantages of transistors.
➢ Low operating voltage
➢ Higher efficiency
➢ Does not require any filament power

TRANSISTOR:

A Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) is a three terminal device in which

operation depends on the interaction of both majority and minority carriers and hence
the name bipolar. It is used in amplifier and oscillator circuits, and as a switch in
digital circuits. It has wide applications in computers, satellites and other modern
communication systems.

Transistor = Trans + istor

Trans means signal transfer property of the device and istor means belong to
the family of resistors. A transistor consists of 3 terminals. They are,

There are two types of transistors.

1. UJT (Unipolar Junction Transistor)

2. BJT (Bipolar Junction Transistor)
A Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) consists of 3 terminals. They are,

1. Emitter (E)
2. Base (B) and
3. Collector (C).

Emitter which emits the charge carriers, collector collects the charge carriers
through base. In order to emit the charge carriers emitter is heavily doped, collector is
moderately doped and base is lightly doped. The width of collector is more compared
to base and emitter. Base width is very small compared to emitter. Collector width is
made wider than emitter in order to dissipate the heat produced whenever it collects
the charge carriers.
BJT’s are classified into two types. They are

1. NPN transistor
2. PNP transistor
PHYSICAL OPERATION AND SIMPLIFIED STRUCTURE OF NPN
TRANSISTOR:

The semi conductor representation and symbolic representation of an NPN

transistor is shown in the following figure.

Figure: Semi conductor representation Figure: Symbolic representation

of NPN transistor of NPN transistor

From the diagram an NPN transistor is constructed by sandwiching a p type

semi conductor between two n-type semi conductors. Here we have two n-type semi
conductors and one p type semi conductor, hence the majority charge carriers in NPN
transistor is electrons and minority charge carriers are holes. Current is produced by
both majority and minority charge carriers. The arrow mark in the symbol represents
the conventional current direction.

A terminal is connected to each of the three semiconductor regions of the

transistor, with the terminals labelled emitter (E), base (B), and collector (C). The
transistor consists of two pn junctions are the Emitter–Base Junction (EBJ) and the
Collector–Base Junction (CBJ) are shown in the following figure.

Figure: A simplified structure of the NPN transistor

 The different modes of operation of the BJT are obtained, the active mode is
the one used if the transistor is to operate as an amplifier.

OPERATION OF THE NPN TRANSISTOR IN THE ACTIVE MODE:

Figure: Current flow in an NPN Transistor biased to operate in the active mode.

Working:

Figure: Working of NPN transistor

If the transistor is connected as per the above biasing the Charge carriers
(electrons) from emitter will move towards collector. N-type emitter is connected to
the negative terminal of the battery, the charge carriers will repel from that moves
towards base and attracted towards n-type collector is connected to positive terminal
of the battery. If we take emitter base junction, it is forward biased. The conventional
current direction is shown in the above figure. Means in the transistor symbol arrow
represents the conventional current direction.
 The total emitter current is the sum of base and collector currents

IE = I B + I C

If assume that emitter current is 100%, then base current is 10% and collector
current is 90%.

CURRENT FLOW IN AN NPN TRANSISTOR BIASED TO OPERATE IN

THE ACTIVE MODE

The forward bias on the emitter–base junction will cause current to flow across
this junction. Current will consist of two components: electrons injected from the
emitter into the base, and holes injected from the base into the emitter. It is highly
desirable to have the first component (electrons from emitter to base) at a much higher
level than the second component (holes from base to emitter). This can be
accomplished by fabricating the device with a heavily doped emitter and a lightly
doped base; that is, the device is designed to have a high density of electrons in the
emitter and a low density of holes in the base.
The current that flows across the emitter–base junction will constitute the
emitter current iE. The direction of IE is “out of” the emitter lead is in the direction of
the positive-charge flow (hole current) and opposite to the direction of the negative-
charge flow (electron current) IE being equal to the sum of these two components of
the electron component is much larger than the hole component, the emitter current
will be dominated by the electron component.
Let us now consider the electrons injected from the emitter into the base. These
electrons will be minority carriers in the p-type base region. Because the base is
usually very thin, in the steady state the excess minority carrier (electron)
concentration in the base. The electron highest concentration is denoted by np (0) at
the emitter side and lowest (zero) at the collector side as in the forward-biased pn
junction np (0) is proportional to

----------- (1)
Where
np (0) is the thermal-equilibrium value of the minority carrier (electron)
concentration in the base region
VBE is the forward base–emitter bias voltage, and
VT is the thermal voltage is equal to approximately 25 mV at room
temperature.
MINORITY-CARRIER CONCENTRATIONS:
The minority-carrier concentration causes the electrons injected into the base to
diffuse through the base region toward the collector as shown in the below figure.

Figure: The minority-carrier concentrations in the base and in the emitter of an

NPN transistor operating in the active mode: and VBE > 0 VCB ≥ 0.

This electron diffusion current In is directly proportional to the slope of the

straight-line concentration.

------------- (2)
Where
AE is the cross-sectional area of the base–emitter junction (in the direction
perpendicular to the page)
q is the charge of the electron
Dn is the electron diffusivity in the base, and
W is the effective width of the base.

In flows the opposite to direction of the electron flow the electrons are diffusing
through the base region will combine with holes, which are the majority carriers in the
base. However the base is usually very thin and lightly doped, the proportion of
electrons “lost” through this recombination process the recombination in the base
region causes the excess of minority carrier concentration deviate from a straight line.
The slope of the concentration at the EBJ is slightly higher than that at the CBJ, with
the difference accounting for the small number of electrons lost in the base region
through recombination.
COLLECTOR CURRENT(IC):
The collector is more positive than the base (VCB), these electrons will be swept
across the CBJ depletion region into the collector. They will be collected to the
collector current Ic. Thus Ic = In. The positive direction of Ic can drop the negative sign
in Eq.(2) and this substituting for np (0) from Eq.(1) can be express the collector
current Ic as

---------------------- (3)
Where IS is the saturation current given by

Substituting in above equation

Where ni is the intrinsic carrier density and
NA is the doping concentration in the base

--------------------- (4)

An important observation is the magnitude of IC is independent of VCB. The

collector is positive with respect to the base then electrons reach the collector side of
the base region will be swept into the collector

. The saturation current IS is inversely proportional to the base width W and is

directly proportional to the area of the EBJ. Typically IS is in the range of 10−12 A to
10−18 A (depending on the size of the device). Because IS is proportional to ni 2.

BASE CURRENT (IB):

The base current IB is composed of two components. The first component IB1 is
due to the holes injected from the base region into the emitter region. This current
component is proportional to the second component of base current IB2is due to holes
in order to replace the holes lost from the base through the recombination process.
Because IB2 is proportional to the number of electrons injected into the base, it also
will be proportional to the total base current IB = IB1 + IB2, will be proportional to
and can be expressed as a fraction of the collector current IC.

----------------- (5)
That is

---------------- (6)
Where
β is transistor parameter.
For modern NPN transistors β is in the range 50 to 200, but it can be 1000 for
special devices. The parameter β is called the common-emitter current gain.
 The above description indicates that the value of β is highly influenced by two
factors:
1. The width of the base region (W) and the relative doping of the base region and
the emitter region NA /ND.
2. To obtain a high β (gain parameter) the base should be thin (W small) and
lightly doped and the emitter heavily doped and W is in the nanometre range.

EMITTER CURRENT (IE):

The emitter current IE is equal to the sum of the collector current IC and the
base current IB that is,

-------------------------- (7)
Substitute Eqs. (5) in (7) gives

---------------------------- (8)
That is,

---------------------------- (9)

Alternatively can be express Eq. (8) in the form

--------------------------- (10)
Where the constant α is related to β by

---------------------------- (11)
Thus the emitter current in Eq. (9) can be written as

------------------------ (12)
Finally Eq. (11) can be express β in terms of α, that is,

------------------------------------ (13)
It can be seen from Eq. (11) that α is a constant (for a particular transistor) that
is less than but very close to unity. For instance, if β = 100, then α= 0.99. Equation
(13) reveals an important fact: Small changes in α correspond to very large changes in
β. Then α is called the common-base current gain.

OPERATION OF THE NPN TRANSISTOR IN SATURATION MODE:

The BJT operate in the active mode the CBJ must be reverse biased in this
condition for the NPN transistor VCB ≥ 0. However a PN junction does not effectively
become forward biased until the forward voltage across it exceeds approximately 0.4
V. It follows that one can maintain active-mode operation of an NPN transistor for
negative VCB down to approximately -0.4 V.
 IC is independent of VCB in the active mode, a situation that extends for VCB
going negative to approximately -0.4 V. Below this value of VCB the CBJ begins to
conduct sufficiently that the transistor leaves the active mode and enters the saturation
mode of operation, where IC decreases.

The saturated NPN transistor IC decreases then the current IB will subtract from
the controlled- current source the resulting in the reduced collector current given by

--------------------------------- (14)
The second term will be increasing VCB as exceeds 0.4 V then IC to be decrease
and reach zero and the base current will increase.

---------------------------- (15)
IC–VCB characteristic of NPN transistor in saturation mode:

Figure: The IC–VCB characteristic of an NPN transistor a constant emitter

current IE.

The transistor enters the saturation mode of operation for VCB < –0.4 V, and the
collector current diminishes.
The collector-to-emitter voltage of a saturated transistor can be found from the
difference between the forward-bias voltages of the EBJ and the CBJ.

Recalling that the CBJ has a much larger area than the EBJ, VCB will be smaller
than VEB by 0.1 to 0.3 V. Thus,

Typically assume that a transistor at the edge of saturation has VCEsat = 0.3V,
while a transistor deep in saturation has VCEsat = 0.2V.
OPERATION OF THE NPN TRANSISTOR IN CUT OFF MODE:
In cut off mode both the junctions of the bipolar junction transistor (emitter-
base junction and collector-base Junction) are reverse biased. Because of this,
transistor in cut off mode works as an open circuit (OC) switch. It is also called in 'off
state' or '0 state'.

When VI < VBE (on), it cannot turn on the BE-Junction diode, the BJT is in cut
off mode

Characteristic of NPN transistor in cut off mode:

➢ The input and Base are grounded ( 0v )

➢ Base-Emitter voltage VBE < 0.7v

➢ Base-Emitter junction is reverse biased

➢ Base-Collector junction is reverse biased

➢ Transistor is “fully-OFF” ( Cut-off region )

➢ No Collector current flows ( IC = 0 )

➢ VOUT = VCE = VCC = ”1″

➢ Transistor operates as an “open switch”

PHYSICAL OPERATION AND SIMPLIFIED STRUCTURE OF PNP
TRANSISTOR:

The semi conductor representation and symbolic representation of an PNP

transistor is shown in the following figure.

Figure: Semi conductor representation Figure: Symbolic representation

of PNP transistor of PNP transistor

From the diagram a PNP transistor is constructed by sandwiching a n type semi

conductor between two p-type semi conductors. Here we have two p-type semi
conductors and one n type semi conductor, hence the majority charge carriers in PNP
transistor is holes and minority charge carriers are electrons. Current is produced by
both majority and minority charge carriers. The arrow mark in the symbol represents
the conventional current direction.

Biasing:

On order to emit the charge carriers, emitter is always forward biased and to
collect the charge carriers collector is connected in reverse bias. The biasing of pnp
transistor is shown below.

Figure: Biasing of PNP transistor

Working:

Figure: Working of PNP transistor

The transistor is connected as per the above biasing. Charge carriers (holes)
from emitter will move towards collector. P-type emitter is connected to the positive
terminal of the battery, the charge carriers will repel from that moves towards base
and attracted towards p-type collector is connected to negative terminal of the battery.
If we take emitter base junction, it is forward biased. The conventional current
direction is shown in the above figure. Means in the transistor symbol arrow
represents the conventional current direction.

Figure: Current flow in a PNP transistor biased to operate in the active mode.

The total emitter current is the sum of base and collector currents.

IE = I B + I C
CIRCUIT SYMBOLS AND CONVENTIONS:

The symbol for the transistor NPN and PNP as shown in below figure.

Figure: Circuit symbols for BJTs

The Voltage polarities and current flows of the NPN and PNP transistors
operate in active mode as shown in below figure.

Figure: Voltage polarities and current flow in transistors biased in the active
mode.
V-I CHARACTERISTICS OF DIFFERENT CONFIGURATIONS AND
GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF TRANSISTOR CHARACTERISTICS:

TRANSISTOR CONFIGURATIONS:

In order to construct a circuit, we need two input and two output terminals.
Where as a transistor have only 3 terminals. Hence, one terminal is made as common
to input and output. Accordingly, we have three terminals, so we have three types of
configurations. They are

1. Common Base configuration

2. Common Emitter configuration
3. Common Collector configuration

If we consider a simple two port network, we have input current, input voltage,
output current and output voltage. Out of the four parameters, two are taken as
independent and two are taken as dependent parameters for the convenience.

Dependent Parameters: Input Voltage, Output Current

Independent Parameters: Input Current, Output Voltage

Input Voltage = f(Input Current, Output Voltage)-------------(1)

Output Current=f(Input Current, Output Voltage)------------(2)

Equation 1 is helpful for obtaining the input characteristics and 2 for output
characteristics.

COMMON BASE (CB) CONFIGURATION:

In common base configuration, base is common to input and output. The circuit
diagram for CB configuration is shown below.

Figure: Circuit Diagram of CB configuration

 Here the input is applied between the base and emitter terminals and the
corresponding output signal is taken between the base and collector terminals with the
base terminal grounded. Here the input parameters are VEB and IE and the output
parameters are VCB and IC. The input current flowing into the emitter terminal must be
higher than the base current and collector current to operate the transistor, therefore
the output collector current is less than the input emitter current.

The input parameters are VEB, IE and the output parameters are VCB and IC.

VEB = f(IE, VCB) ---------(1)

IC = f(IE, VCB) ---------(2)

INPUT CHARACTERISTICS:

Equation1 is used for plotting input characteristics. Input characteristics are

obtained between input current and input voltage with constant output voltage. First
keep the output voltage VCB constant and vary the input voltage VEB for different
points then at each point record the input current IE value. Repeat the same process at
different output voltage levels. Now with these values we need to plot the graph
between IE and VEB parameters. The below figure show the input characteristics of
common base configuration.

Figure: Input Characteristics of CB configuration

If reverse bias voltage of C-B junction is keep on increasing, a situation arises

where E-B and C-B space charge regions touch each other, and the width of the quasi-
neutral base region becomes zero, Known as base punch through.

As there is an increase in collector voltage, depletion width increases, this in

turn decreases effective base width. This is called as early effect.
OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS:

The equation (2) is used for plotting output characteristics. The output
characteristics of common base configuration are obtained between output current and
output voltage with constant input current. First keep the emitter current constant and
vary the VCB value for different points, now record the IC values at each point. Repeat
the same process at different IE values. Finally we need to draw the plot between
VCB and IC at constant IE. The below figure show the output characteristics of common
base configuration.

Figure: Output characteristics of CB configuration

MODES OF OPERATION OF BJT:

Input Bias Output Bias Region of operation Application

Reverse Reverse Cut off OFF Switch

Forward Reverse Active Amplifier

Forward Forward Saturation ON Switch

Reverse Forward Inverse Active Attenuator

Transistor parameters:

1. Input Resistance:

Input resistance in Common Base is in the order of few ohms.

2. Output Resistance:

Output resistance in Common Base is in the order of hundred of kilo ohms.

3. Current Gain:

Current gain is always less than unity.

4. Voltage Gain:

Voltage gain in common base configuration is high.

COMMON EMITTER (CE) CONFIGURATION:

In common emitter configuration, emitter is common to input and output. The

circuit diagram for CE configuration is shown below.

Figure: Circuit diagram for CE configuration

The input to the CE is applied to the base-emitter circuit and the output is taken
from the collector-emitter circuit, making the emitter the element "common" to both
input and output. The CE is set apart from the other configurations, because it is the
only configuration that provides a phase reversal between input and output signals.
This configuration is mostly used one among all the three configurations. It has
medium input and output impedance values.

The input voltage and input current are VBE and IB. Output voltage and output
current are VCE and IC. Then the equations used for plotting input and output
characteristics are

VBE = f (IB, VCE) --------------- (1)

IC = f (IB, VCE) --------------- (2)

INPUT CHARACTERISTICS:

Using equation1, the input characteristics of common emitter configuration are

obtained between input current IB and input voltage VBE with constant output voltage
VCE. Keep the output voltage VCE constant and vary the input voltage VBE for different
points, now record the values of input current at each point. Now using these values
we need to draw a graph between the values of IB and VBE at constant VCE.

Figure: Input characteristics of CE configuration

OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS:

Using equation 2, the output characteristics of common emitter configuration

are obtained between the output current IC and output voltage VCE with constant input
current IB. Keep the base current IB constant and vary the value of output voltage
VCE for different points, now note down the value of collector I C for each point. Plot
the graph between the parameters IC and VCE in order to get the output characteristics
of common emitter configuration.
 Figure: Output characteristics of CE configuration

Transistor parameters:

1. Input Resistance:

Input resistance in Common Emitter is moderate.

2. Output Resistance:

Output resistance in Common Emitter is moderate.

3. Current Gain:

Current gain in Common Emitter configuration is high.

4. Voltage Gain:

Voltage gain in common Emitter configuration is high.

COMMON COLLECTOR (CC) CONFIGURATION:

In common collector configuration, collector is common to input and output.

The circuit diagram for CC configuration is shown below.

Figure: Circuit diagram for CC configuration

This configuration is also known as emitter follower configuration because the

emitter voltage follows the base voltage. This configuration is mostly used as a buffer.
These configurations are widely used in impedance matching applications because of
their high input impedance.

The input voltage and input current are VBC and IB. Output voltage and output
current are VEC and IE. Then the equations used for plotting input and output
characteristics are

VBC = f(IB, VEC) ---------------(1)

IE = f(IB, VEC) ---------------(2)

INPUT CHARACTERISTICS:

The input characteristics of a common collector configuration are quite

different from the common base and common emitter configurations because the input
voltage VBC is largely determined by VEC level. The input characteristics of a
common-collector configuration are obtained between inputs current IB and the input
voltage VCB at constant output voltage VEC. Keep the output voltage VEC constant at
different levels and vary the input voltage VBC for different points and record the
IB values for each point. Now using these values we need to draw a graph between the
parameters of VBC and IB at constant VEC.
 Figure: Input characteristics of CC Configuration

OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS:

The operation of the common collector circuit is same as that of common

emitter circuit. The output characteristics of a common collector circuit are obtained
between the output voltage VEC and output current IE at constant input current IB. In
the operation of common collector circuit if the base current is zero then the emitter
current also becomes zero. As a result no current flows through the transistor. If the
base current increases then the transistor operates in active region and finally reaches
to saturation region. To plot the graph first we keep the IB at constant value and we
will vary the VEC value for various points, now we need to record the value of IE for
each point. Repeat the same process for different IB values. Now using these values we
need to plot the graph between the parameters of IE and VCE at constant values of IB.
The below figure show the output characteristics of common collector.

Figure: Output characteristics of CC Configuration

Transistor parameters:

1. Input Resistance:

Input resistance in Common collector is High.

2. Output Resistance:

Output resistance in Common collector is low.

3. Current Gain:

Current gain in Common collector configuration is high.

4. Voltage Gain:

Voltage gain in common collector configuration is less than unity.

Amplification Factors:

In common Base configuration,

In common Emitter configuration,

In common Collector configuration,

Relationship between α, β, and γ:

(i) Between α, β:

We know that

(ii) Between β and γ:

(iii) Between γ and α:

COMPARISON OF TRANSISTOR CONFIGURATIONS:

Parameter CB CE CC

Input Resistance Low Moderate High

Output Resistance High Moderate Low

Current Gain Less than unity High High

Voltage Gain High High Less than unity

Amplification factor

Application Multi stage Audio signal Impedance

amplifier amplifier matching
DEPENDENCE OF COLLECTOR CURRENT ON COLLECTOR VOLTAGE -
THE EARLY EFFECT:

In practical BJTs are operated in the active region the collector current
dependence on the collector voltage and their IC–VCB characteristics are not perfectly
horizontal straight lines. To see this dependence more clearly, consider the conceptual
circuit shown in below figure.

Figure: (a) Conceptual circuit for measuring the IC–VCE characteristics of the
BJT.
(b) The IC–VCE characteristics of a practical BJT.

The transistor is connected in the common-emitter configuration in the emitter

is common terminal between the input and output ports. The voltage VBE can be set to
any desired value by adjusting the dc source connected between base and emitter. At
each value of VBE the corresponding IC–VCE characteristic curve can be measured
point by point by varying the dc source connected between collector and emitter and
measuring the corresponding collector current. The result is the family of IC–VCE
characteristic curves shown in Fig (b) and known as common-emitter characteristics.

At low values of VCE (lower than about 0.3 V), as the collector voltage goes
below that of the base by more than 0.4 V, the collector–base junction becomes
forward biased and the transistor leaves the active mode and enters the saturation
mode then IC–VCE curves in the saturation region. Hence observe that the
characteristic curves, though still straight lines, have finite slope. When extrapolated
the characteristic lines meet at a point on the negative VCE axis, at VCE = –VA. The
voltage VA is a parameter for the particular BJT, with typical values in the range of
10 V to 100 V. It is called the Early Voltage.
 At a given value of VBE, increasing VCE increases the reverse-bias voltage on
the collector–base junction and thus increases the width of the depletion region of this
junction. This results in a decrease in the Effective Base Width W and IS is inversely
proportional to W. Then IS will increase and that IC increases proportionally. This is
the Early Effect and it is also known as the Base-Width Modulation Effect.

The linear dependence of IC on VCE can be assuming that IS remains constant

and including the factor in the equation for IC as follows.

----------- (1)
The nonzero slope of the IC–VCE straight lines indicates that the output
resistance looking into the collector is not infinite. Rather, it is finite and defined by

------------ (2)
Substitute the Eq (1) in Eq (2)

---------------- (3)

Where IC and VCE are the coordinates of the point at which the BJT is operating
on the particular IC–VCE curve. Alternatively the above expression can be write as

------------------ (4)
Where is the value of the collector current with the early effect neglected then

-------------- (5)
The output resistance ro can be included in the circuit model of the transistor.
This is illustrated in the two large-signal circuit models of a common-emitter NPN
transistor operating in the active mode with the resistance ro connected between the
collector and the emitter terminals as shown in the below figure.

Figure: Large-signal equivalent-circuit models of an NPN BJT operating in the

active mode in the common-emitter configuration with the output
resistance ro included.