Basic Analog Electrnics

RECTIFIER CIRCUITS
Rectifier is an electronic component that converts alternating current (AC) into direct current (DC), ensuring a
unidirectional flow of electric charge.

As we know, electricity reaches our homes from power grids in the form of AC, but most commonly used electric
appliances, such as mobile phones, computers, televisions, fridges, etc operate on direct current (DC).

Therefore, the rectifier becomes a very useful component in electronics.

 Types of Rectifiers

There are various types of rectifiers used in electronics for different use cases. Some of these rectifiers are:

● Half-Wave Rectifier
● The simplest type of rectifier.
● Uses a single diode to allow current to flow in only one direction during one half-cycle of the AC waveform.
● Efficiency is relatively low.
● Full-Wave Rectifier
● Utilizes two diodes to rectify both halves of the AC waveform.
● Improved efficiency compared to half-wave rectifiers.
● Center-Tap Full-Wave Rectifier: Uses a center-tapped transformer.
● Bridge Rectifier: Uses four diodes in a bridge configuration, eliminating the need for a center-tapped transformer.
● Bridge Rectifier
● A type of full-wave rectifier that uses four diodes in a bridge configuration.
● More efficient than center-tap full-wave rectifiers.
● Commonly used in power supplies and electronic devices.
● Synchronous Rectifier
● Utilizes active components such as MOSFETs instead of diodes.
● Offers lower conduction losses and improved efficiency.
● Zener Diode Rectifier
● Uses Zener diodes for voltage regulation.
● Provides a constant output voltage despite fluctuations in input voltage.
Limiting Circuits

Limiting Circuits/Diode Clipper Circuits

The Diode Clipper, also known as a Diode Limiter, is a wave shaping circuit that takes an input waveform and clips or cuts
off some part of the waveform.

This diode clipping of the input signal produces an output waveform that resembles a flattened version of the
input. For example, the half-wave rectifier is a clipper circuit, since all voltages below zero are eliminated.

Another aplication is to provide over-voltage protection using zener diodes to ensure that the output voltage
never exceeds a certain level protecting the circuit from high voltage spikes.
In this diode clipping circuit, the diode is forward biased (anode more positive than cathode) during the positive half
cycle of the sinusoidal input waveform. For the diode to become forward biased, it must have the input voltage
magnitude greater than +0.7 volts (0.3 volts for a germanium diode).
When this happens the diodes begins to conduct and holds the voltage across itself constant at 0.7V until the
sinusoidal waveform falls below this value. Thus the output voltage which is taken across the diode can never exceed
0.7 volts during the positive half cycle.
During the negative half cycle, the diode is reverse biased (cathode more positive than anode) blocking current flow
through itself and as a result has no effect on the negative half of the sinusoidal voltage which passes to the load
unaltered. Thus the diode limits the positive half of the input waveform and is known as a positive clipper circuit.
In this circuit the reverse phenomenon of above circuit takes place. The diode is forward biased during the
negative half cycle of the sinusoidal waveform and limits or clips it to –0.7 volts while allowing the positive half
cycle to pass unaltered when reverse biased. As the diode limits the negative half cycle of the input voltage it
is therefore called a negative clipper circuit.
Biased Diode Clipping Circuits

To produce diode clipping circuits for voltage waveforms at different levels, a bias voltage, VBIAS is added in
series with the diode to produce a combination clipper as shown. The voltage across the series combination
must be greater than VBIAS + 0.7V before the diode becomes sufficiently forward biased to conduct. For
example, if the VBIAS level is set at 4.0 volts, then the sinusoidal voltage at the diode’s anode terminal must be
greater than 4.0 + 0.7 = 4.7 volts for it to become forward biased. Any anode voltage levels above this bias
point are clipped off.
A variable diode clipping or diode limiting level can be achieved by varying the bias voltage of the diodes. If
both the positive and the negative half cycles are to be clipped, then two biased clipping diodes are used. But
for both positive and negative diode clipping, the bias voltage need not be the same. The positive bias voltage
could be at one level, for example 4 volts, and the negative bias voltage at another, for example 6 volts as
shown.
When the voltage of the positive half cycle reaches +4.7 V, diode D1 conducts and limits the waveform at +4.7 V. Diode
D2 does not conduct until the voltage reaches –6.7 V. Therefore, all positive voltages above +4.7 V and negative
voltages below –6.7 V are automatically clipped.
The advantage of biased diode clipping circuits is that it prevents the output signal from exceeding preset voltage limits
for both half cycles of the input waveform, which could be an input from a noisy sensor or the positive and negative
supply rails of a power supply.
If the diode clipping levels are set too low or the input waveform is too great then the elimination of both waveform
peaks could end up with a square-wave shaped waveform.
PROBLEM WITH BIASED CLIPERS
The use of a bias voltage means that the amount of the voltage waveform that is clipped off can be accurately
controlled. But one of the main disadvantages of using voltage biased diode clipping circuits, is that they need
an additional emf battery source which may be a problem.
One easy way of creating biased diode clipping circuits without the need for an additional emf supply is to use
Zener Diodes.
However, the Zener Diode or “Breakdown Diode”, as they are sometimes referred too, are basically the same
as the standard PN junction diode exept that they are specially designed to have a low and specified Reverse
Breakdown Voltage which takes advantage of any reverse voltage applied to it.

In the forward-biased direction, that is Anode is more positive with respect to its Cathode, a zener diode
behaves like a normal junction diode when the forward voltage VF across the diode exceeds 0.7 volts (silicon)
causing the zener diode to conduct.
The forward current flowing through the conducting diode is at its maximum determined only by the connected
load. Thus in the forward-bias direction, the zener behaves like a regular diode within its specified current
and/or power limits and as such, the forward characteristics of a zener diode is generally of no interest.
However, unlike a conventional diode that blocks any flow of current through itself when reverse biased, that
is the Cathode becomes more positive than the Anode, as soon as the reverse voltage reaches a
pre-determined value, the zener diode begins to conduct in the reverse direction.
Since a zener diode is designed to work in the reverse breakdown region of its characteristic curve, they have
a fixed breakdown voltage, VZ value which is determined during manufacture.
As the reverse voltage across the zener diode increases from 0 volts to its zener breakdown voltage, a small
reverse or leakage current will flow through the diode which remains fairly constant as the reverse voltage
increases.
Once the reverse voltage applied across the zener diode exceeds the rated voltage of the device, a process
called Zener Breakdown occurs in the semiconductor depletion layer and a current starts to flow through the
diode to limit this increase in voltage.
The current now flowing through the zener diode increases dramatically to its maximum circuit value (which is
usually limited by a series resistor).
Once zener breakdown occurs, the voltage drop across the diode remains fairly constant even though the
zener current, IZ through it can vary considerably. The voltage point at which the voltage across the zener
diode becomes stable is called the “zener voltage”, (VZ). For zener diodes this breakdown voltage value can
range from a few volts upto a few hundred volts.
The point at which the zener voltage triggers the current to flow through the diode can be very accurately
controlled (to less than 1% tolerance) in the doping stage of the diodes semiconductor construction giving the
diode a specific zener breakdown voltage, ( VZ ) for example, 4.3V or 7.5V. This zener breakdown voltage on
the I-V curve is almost a vertical straight line.
The Zener Diode Regulator
This ability of the zener diode to control itself can be used to great effect to regulate or stabilise a voltage
source against supply or load variations. The fact that the voltage across the diode in the breakdown region is
almost constant turns out to be an important characteristic of the zener diode as it can be used in the simplest
types of voltage regulator applications.
The function of a voltage regulator is to provide a constant output voltage to a load connected in parallel with it
in spite of the ripples in the supply voltage or variations in the load current. A zener diode will continue to
regulate its voltage until the diodes holding current falls below the minimum IZ(min) value in the reverse
breakdown region.
Zener Diodes can be used to produce a stabilised voltage output with low ripple under varying load current
conditions. By passing a small current through the diode from a voltage source, via a suitable current limiting
resistor (RS), the zener diode will conduct sufficient current to maintain a voltage drop of Vout.
We remember from the previous tutorials that the DC output voltage from the half or full-wave rectifiers
contains ripple superimposed onto the DC voltage and that as the load value changes so to does the average
output voltage. By connecting a simple zener stabiliser circuit as shown below across the output of the
rectifier, a more stable output voltage can be produced.
Resistor, RS is connected in series with the zener diode to limit the current flow through the diode with the
voltage source, VS being connected across the combination. The stabilised output voltage Vout is taken from
across the zener diode.
LEVEL SHIFTER CIRCUITS
In digital electronics, a level shifter, also called level converter or logic level shifter, or voltage level translator, is a circuit used to
translate signals from one logic level or voltage domain to another, allowing compatibility between integrated circuits with
different voltage requirements.

Clamper Circuits
Definition: Clamper circuits are the electronic circuits that shift the dc level of the AC signal. Clampers are also known
as DC voltage restorers or level shifter. Clampers are basically classified as positive and negative that includes both
biased and unbiased conditions individually.

These circuits are used to clamp an input signal to a different dc level. It basically adds dc component to the applied input
signal in order to push the signal to either the positive or negative side. Clamper circuit is a combination of a resistor along
with a diode and capacitor. It sometimes also employs dc battery so as to have an additional shift in the signal level.
Clamper circuits are constructed in a similar manner as that of clipper circuits. However, clamper includes an extra
charging element that is the capacitor in its circuitry. The combination of resistor and capacitor in the clamper
circuit is used to maintain different dc level at the output of the clamper.

Operating principle of Clamper circuits

As we have already discussed a clamper consist of the capacitor and a diode in shunt connection with the load.

The working of clamper circuits depends on the variation in the time constant of the capacitor. This variation
is the outcome of changing the current path of the diode with the change in input signal polarity.

Here, the magnitude of the time constant is τ= RC

this is chosen large enough in order to assure that voltage across the capacitor does not discharge consequently
at the non-conducting interval of the diode. But, such a discharge takes place only when the load resistance is
very large. This permits the capacitor to take larger discharge time. Conversely, a smaller value of the capacitor is
chosen so that it will charge rapidly at the time of conduction of the diode.

Classification of Clamper Circuits

Clampers are classified in the following groups:

-Positive Clamper Circuit

-Negative Clamper Circuit

-Positive Clamper Circuit :In a positive clamper circuit, the input waveform is shifted upward above the 0v reference
line. Here is the circuit diagram of a positive clamper circuit.
During the positive half cycle, the diode is reverse biased, therefore, therefore, the input signal appears at the output as it is.
At this point, the capacitor is not charged and there is no clamping. Therefore, the output at this half cycle is not considered.

During the next negative half cycle, the diode becomes forward biased and it starts to conduct, at this half cycle, the
capacitor charges up to the peak input voltage VM with inverse polarity.

During the next positive half cycle, the diode is reverse biased and it does not conduct. Due to this, the capacitor starts to
discharge. The capacitor discharge adds to the input signal which appears at the output as the summation of both voltages
which reaches up to 2VM. This is how the signal level is shifted above the 0v line.
Negative Clamper
The negative clamper shifts the whole input waveform downward. Here is the circuit diagram of a negative clamper circuit.

During the positive half cycle, the diode is forward-biased. Therefore, it conducts and charges the capacitor with inverse

polarity up to the peak input voltage -VM. There is no output during this half cycle.

During the negative half cycle, the diode is reverse biased and it does not conduct. Therefore, the capacitor discharges

which adds with the input waveform. The addition of both voltages shifts the whole waveform furthermore up to -2V M. This is

how the input signal is shifted downward.

Applications of Clamper Circuit

● It is used as a voltage multiplier.

● It is used for improving the reverse recovery time.
● It is used for removing the distortion in the signal.
● It is also used as test equipment.
 Bipolar Transistors
After having a good knowledge on the working of the diode, which is a single PN junction, let us try to connect two PN junctions which make a new
component called Transistor. A Transistor is a three terminal semiconductor device that regulates current or voltage flow and acts as a switch or gate
for signals.

Why Do We Need Transistors?

Suppose that you have a FM receiver which grabs the signal you want. The received signal will obviously be weak due to the disturbances it would face
during its journey. Now if this signal is read as it is, you cannot get a fair output. Hence we need to amplify the signal. Amplification means increasing
the signal strength.

This is just an instance. Amplification is needed wherever the signal strength has to be increased. This is done by a transistor. A transistor also acts as a
switch to choose between available options. It also regulates the incoming current and voltage of the signals.

Constructional Details of a Transistor

The Transistor is a three terminal solid state device which is formed by connecting two diodes back to back. Hence it has got two PN junctions. Three
terminals are drawn out of the three semiconductor materials present in it. This type of connection offers two types of transistors. They are PNP and
NPN which means an N-type material between two Ptypes and the other is a P-type material between two N-types respectively.

The construction of transistors is as shown in the following figure which explains the idea discussed above.
The three terminals drawn from the transistor indicate Emitter, Base and Collector terminals. They have their functionality
as discussed below.

Emitter
The left hand side of the above shown structure can be understood as Emitter.
This has a moderate size and is heavily doped as its main function is to supply a number of majority carriers,
i.e. either electrons or holes.
As this emits electrons, it is called as an Emitter.
This is simply indicated with the letter E.

Base
The middle material in the above figure is the Base.
This is thin and lightly doped.
Its main function is to pass the majority carriers from the emitter to the collector.
This is indicated by the letter B.

Collector
The right side material in the above figure can be understood as a Collector.
Its name implies its function of collecting the carriers.
This is a bit larger in size than emitter and base. It is moderately doped.
This is indicated by the letter C.

The symbols of PNP and NPN transistors are as shown below.

The arrow-head in the above figures indicated the emitter of a transistor. As the collector of a transistor has to
dissipate much greater power, it is made large. Due to the specific functions of emitter and collector, they are not
interchangeable. Hence the terminals are always to be kept in mind while using a transistor.

In a Practical transistor, there is a notch present near the emitter lead for identification. The PNP and NPN transistors
can be differentiated using a Multimeter. The following figure shows how different practical transistors look like.
OPERATION of BIPOLAR TRANSISTOR
We have so far discussed the constructional details of a transistor, but to understand the operation of a transistor, first
we need to know about the biasing.

Transistor Biasing
As we know that a transistor is a combination of two diodes, we have two junctions here. As one junction is between
the emitter and base, that is called as Emitter-Base junction and likewise, the other is Collector-Base junction.

Biasing is controlling the operation of the circuit by providing power supply. The function of both the PN junctions is
controlled by providing bias to the circuit through some dc supply. The figure below shows how a transistor is biased.
By having a look at the above figure, it is understood that

The N-type material is provided negative supply and P-type material is given positive supply to make the circuit
Forward bias.
The N-type material is provided positive supply and P-type material is given negative supply to make the circuit
Reverse bias.

By applying the power, the emitter base junction is always forward biased as the emitter resistance is very small.
The collector base junction is reverse biased and its resistance is a bit higher. A small forward bias is sufficient at
the emitter junction whereas a high reverse bias has to be applied at the collector junction.

The direction of current indicated in the circuits above, also called as the Conventional Current, is the movement of
hole current which is opposite to the electron current.
Operation PNP Transistor
The operation of a PNP transistor can be explained by having a look at the following figure, in which emitter-base junction is forward biased and
collector-base junction is reverse biased.

The voltage VEE provides a positive potential at the emitter which repels the holes in the P-type material and these holes cross the emitter-base
junction, to reach the base region. There a very low percent of holes recombine with free electrons of N-region. This provides very low current
which constitutes the base current IB. The remaining holes cross the collector-base junction, to constitute collector current IC, which is the hole
current.

As a hole reaches the collector terminal, an electron from the battery negative terminal fills the space in the collector. This flow slowly increases
and the electron minority current flows through the emitter, where each electron entering the positive terminal of VEE, is replaced by a hole by
moving towards the emitter junction. This constitutes emitter current IE. Hence we can understand that −

The conduction in a PNP transistor takes place through holes.

The collector current is slightly less than the emitter current.
The increase or decrease in the emitter current affects the collector current.
Operation NPN Transistor
The operation of an NPN transistor can be explained by having a look at the following figure, in which emitter-base junction is
forward biased and collector-base junction is reverse biased.

The voltage VEE provides a negative potential at the emitter which repels the electrons in the N-type material and these electrons
cross the emitter-base junction, to reach the base region. There a very low percent of electrons recombine with free holes of
P-region. This provides very low current which constitutes the base current IB. The remaining holes cross the collector-base
junction, to constitute the collector current IC.

As an electron reaches out of the collector terminal, and enters the positive terminal of the battery, an electron from the negative
terminal of the battery VEE enters the emitter region. This flow slowly increases and the electron current flows through the
transistor.

Hence we can understand that −

The conduction in a NPN transistor takes place through electrons.

The collector current is higher than the emitter current.
The increase or decrease in the emitter current affects the collector current.
Advantages
There are many advantages of a transistor such as −

High voltage gain.

Lower supply voltage is sufficient.
Most suitable for low power applications.
Smaller and lighter in weight.
Mechanically stronger than vacuum tubes.
No external heating required like vacuum tubes.
Very suitable to integrate with resistors and diodes to produce ICs.

There are few disadvantages such as they cannot be used for high power applications due to lower power dissipation.
They have lower input impedance and they are temperature dependent.
TRANSISTOR CONFIGURATIONS
A Transistor has 3 terminals, the emitter, the base and the collector. Using these 3 terminals the transistor can be
connected in a circuit with one terminal common to both input and output in a 3 different possible configurations.

The three types of configurations are Common Base, Common Emitter and Common Collector configurations. In
every configuration, the emitter junction is forward biased and the collector junction is reverse biased.
Common Base CB Configuration
the Base terminal is taken as common terminal for both input and output of the transistor. The common base
connection for both NPN and PNP transistors is as shown in the following figure.
Characteristics of common Base configuration
Current Amplification Factor (ALPHA) (α)
The ratio of change in collector current ΔIC to the change in emitter current ΔIE
when collector voltage VCB is kept constant, is called as Current amplification
factor. It is denoted by α.

α=ΔIC/ΔIE at constant VCB

Expression for Collector current
With the idea above, let us try to draw some expression for collector current. Along with the emitter current flowing,
there is some amount of base current IB which flows through the base terminal due to electron hole recombination.
As collector-base junction is reverse biased, there is another current which is flown due to minority charge carriers.
This is the leakage current which can be understood as Ileakage. This is due to minority charge carriers and hence very
small.

The emitter current that reaches the collector terminal is

α IE

Total collector current IC=αIE+Ileakage

If the emitter-base voltage VEB = 0, even then, there flows a small leakage current, which can be termed as ICBO
Collector−base current with output open.
Hence the above derived is the expression for collector current. The
value of collector current depends on base current and leakage current
along with the current amplification factor of that transistor in use.
Common Emitter CE Configuration
The name itself implies that the Emitter terminal is taken as common terminal for both input and output of the
transistor. The common emitter connection for both NPN and PNP transistors is as shown in the following figure.
Input Characteristics of C.B Configuration
Input characteristics are the relationship
between the input current and input voltage
with constant output voltage. In common
base configuration input current is emitter
current IE and the input voltage is base
emitter voltage VBE. The curve is plotted
between IE and VBE keeping VCB as constant.

The VBE is increased keeping VCB constant,

initially at zero and the input current IE is
noted, similarly the VCB value is increased

Input side is forward biased so the input

resistance is small so for a small increase in
VBE there is rapid increase in the emitter
current IE. As the output voltage VCB is
increased the width of the depletion layer
between emitter base decreases and the cut
in voltage is reduced so the curve drifts to
the left side.
Output Characteristics of C.B Configuration
Output characteristics are the
relationship between output current IC
and output voltage VCB keeping input
current IE constant. When the input
current IE is zero it is in cut off region.
In saturation region both emitter base
junction and collector base junction are
forward biased.

In active region IE is kept constant and

output voltage VCB is increased further
and the output current IC almost
remains constant. So in active region
curve is almost flat. Output voltage
causes only a very little change in
output current.
Input Characteristics of C.E Configuration
Here the input current is the base current IB,
input voltage is base emitter voltage VBE
and the output voltage is collector emitter
voltage VCE.
First the output voltage VCE is kept at zero
and the input voltage VBE is gradually
increased and the input current IB is noted.
Then again the output voltage VCE is
increased like 10V and kept constant and by
increasing the input voltage VBE, the input
current IB is noted.
From the results it is observed that when the
input voltage VBE is increased initially there
is no current produced, further when it is
increased the input current IB increases
steeply. When the output voltage VCE is
further increased the curve shifts right
side.
Output Characteristics of C.E Configuration
Here the values of output current IC and the
output voltage VCE is noted keeping input
current IB constant.

In active region when the output voltage is

increased there is very slight change in the
output voltage. The curve looks almost flat in
the active region.

Cut off region is the region where the input

current is below zero.

When both the junctions are forward biased,

it is in saturation region.
Input Characteristics of C.C Configuration
Here input current is IB and input voltage VBE
and output voltage is VCE.

The output voltage VCE initially kept at 3V. The

input voltage VBE is increased from zero
gradually and the corresponding input current
IB is noted.

Then the output voltage is increased, let’s say

to 5V and output voltage is gradually increased
and input current is noted.
Output Characteristics of C.C Configuration
Here output current is IE and output voltage is VCE and
the input current is IB.

Initially the input current IB is kept at zero.

Slowly input current IB is increased like 10µA and the

output voltage VCE is increased gradually from zero and
the corresponding output current IE is noted.

When the input current is zero no current flows in the

transistor and it is called cut off region. When the input
current is very high the current through the transistor is
also very high and the transistor will be in saturation
region.

The region where there is a change in the output

current for the change in output voltage is the active
region. Here the active region almost looks flat.