Electronic Devices & Circuits – II

Contents: Power Devices - II

8. UJT, Constructional Features, Operating Principle,
Characteristics and Specification
9. Photo diode
10. Photoconductive cells,
11. IR emitters,
12. Solar Cells,
13. Phototransistor,
Unit - IV
14. Opto-isolator.
Part -II
Dr. Samarth Borker
Asst. Professor
Dept. of E & TC
For detailed explanation and understanding, refer:
R. Boylestad, L. Nashelsky; Electronic Devices and Circuits, PHI.
Goa College of Engineering
P. S. Bimbhra; Power Electronics – Khanna Publishers.
Mohd. Rasheed; Power Electronic Circuits, Devices and Applications; Pearson Education.
J.B Gupta; Electronic Devices and Circuits; S. K. Kataria& Sons. http://samarthborkar.simplesite.com/1
Dr. Samarth Borker
Symbol and Construction of Unijunction

UJT
Transistor (UJT)

In Unijunction Transistor, the PN

Junction is formed by lightly doped N type
UJT stands for UniJunction Transistor. It is a three silicon bar with heavily doped P type material
terminal semiconductor switching device. The Unijunction on one side. The ohmic contact on either ends
Transistor is a simple device that consists of a bar of n-type of the silicon bar is termed as Base 1 (B1) and
silicon material with a non-rectifying contact at either end Base 2 (B2) and P-type terminal is named as
(base 1 and base 2), and with a rectifying contact (emitter) emitter.
alloyed into the bar part way along its length, to form the only
junction within the device (hence the name ‘Unijunction’).
The unique switching characteristics of UJT makes it
different from conventional BJT’s and FET’s by acting as
switching transistor instead of amplifying the signals. It exhibits
negative resistance in its characteristics which employs it as
relaxation oscillators in variety of applications.

The emitter junction is placed such that it is more close to terminal Base 2 than Base 1. The symbols of both
UJT and JFET resemble the same except the emitter arrowhead represents the direction in which conventional current
flow, but they operate differently.
2
How does a Unijunction Transistor (UJT) works

The simplified equivalent circuit (at Figure 3 below) shows that N-type
channel consists of two resistors RB2 and RB1 in series with an equivalent diode,
D representing the PN junction. The emitter PN junction is fixed along the ohmic
channel during its manufacturing process.

The variable resistance RB1 is provided between the terminals Emitter

(E) and Base 1 (B1), the RB2 between the terminals Emitter (E) and Base 2 (B2).
Since the PN junction is more close to B2, the value of RB2 will be less than the
variable resistance RB1.

A voltage divider network is formed by the series resistances RB2 and

RB1. When a voltage is applied across the semiconductor device, the potential
will be in proportion to the position of base points along the channel.

The Emitter (E) will act as input when employed in a circuit, as the
terminal B1 will be grounded. The terminal B2 will be positive biased to B1,
when a voltage (VBB) applied across the terminals B1 and B2. When the emitter
input is zero, the voltage across resistance RB1 of the voltage divider circuit is Dr. Samarth Borker

calculated by 3
 The important parameter of Unijunction Transistor is
‘intrinsic stand-off ratio’ (η), which is resistive ratio of RB1 to
RBB. Most UJT’s have η value ranging from 0.5 to 0.8. The PN
junction is reverse biased; when small amount of voltage which
is less than voltage developed across resistance RB1 (ηVBB) is
applied across the terminal emitter (E).
Thus a very high impedance is developed prompting
device to move into non-conducting state i.e., it will be
switched off and no current flows through it. The UJT begins to
conduct when the PN junction is forward biased.

The forward biased is achieved when voltage applied

across emitter terminal is increased and becomes more than
VRB1. This results in larger flow of emitter current from emitter
region to base region. Increase in emitter current reduces the
resistance between emitter and Base 1, resulting in negative
resistance at emitter terminal.

The Unijunction Transistor (UJT) will act as voltage

breakdown device, when the input applied between emitter
and base 1 reduces below breakdown value i.e., RB1 increases
to a higher value. This shows that RB1 depends on the emitter
https://electricalfundablog.com/unijunction-transistor-ujt-construction-
current and it is variable. working-characteristics-curve-applications/ 4
 Cutoff
Characteristics Curve of Unijunction Transistor (UJT)
Cutoff region is the area where the Unijunction
Transistor (UJT) doesn’t get sufficient voltage to
The characteristics of Unijunction Transistor (UJT) can be
turn on. The applied voltage hasn’t reached the
explained by three parameters:
triggering voltage, thus making transistor to be in
off state.
Cutoff
Negative Resistance Region
Negative Resistance Region
Saturation
When the transistor reaches the triggering
voltage, VTRIG, Unijunction Transistor (UJT) will
turn on. After a certain time, if the applied
voltage increases to the emitter lead, it will reach
out at VPEAK. The voltage drops from VPEAK to
Valley Point even though the current increases
(negative resistance).
Saturation

Saturation region
It is the area where the current and voltage
raises, if the applied voltage to emitter terminal
increases.
5
Applications of Unijunction Transistor (UJT) Application of Unijunction Transistor (UJT) in Relaxation
Oscillator
The Unijunction Transistor can be employed in variety of
applications such as:

Switching Device
Triggering Device for Triacs and SCR’s
Timing Circuits
For phase control
In sawtooth generators
In simple relaxation oscillators
Advantages of Unijunction Transistor (UJT)

low cost, negative resistance characteristics
Requires low value of triggering current.
A stable triggering voltage
Low power absorbing device
Disadvantage of Unijunction Transistor (UJT)
The main disadvantage of Unijunction Transistor is its
inability to provide appropriate amplification.
The resistance R3 charges the capacitor C1 until the
peak point. The UJT’s emitter terminal has no effect on C1 until
peak point is reached. When the emitter voltage reaches peak
voltage point, the lowered emitter base 1 resistance rapidly
discharges the capacitor.
As the capacitor C1 discharges beneath the valley
point, the emitter base 1 resistance will return back to high
resistance, thus making capacitor free to charge again.6
 Dr. Samarth Borker

9. Photodiode
https://www.electronicshub.org/photodiode-working-characteristics-applications/

It is a form of light-weight sensor that converts light

energy into electrical voltage or current. Photodiode is a type
of semi conducting device with PN junction. Between the p
(positive) and n (negative) layers, an intrinsic layer is present.
The photo diode accepts light energy as input to generate
electric current.

It is also called as Photodetector, photo sensor or The symbol of the photodiode is

light detector. Photo diode operates in reverse bias condition similar to that of an LED but the arrows point
i.e. the p – side of the photodiode is connected with negative inwards as opposed to outwards in the LED.
terminal of battery (or the power supply) and n – side to the The following image shows the symbol of a
positive terminal of battery. Typical photodiode materials are photodiode.
Silicon, Germanium, Indium Gallium Arsenide Phosphide and
Indium gallium arsenide. When surface area of photodiode
increases, it results in more response time. Few photo diodes
will look like Light Emitting Diode (LED). It has two terminals as
shown below. The smaller terminal acts as cathode and longer
terminal acts as anode. 7

Working of a Photodiode
Generally, when a light is made to illuminate the PN
junction, covalent bonds are ionized. This generates hole and
electron pairs. Photocurrents are produced due to generation
of electron-hole pairs. Electron hole pairs are formed when
photons of energy more than 1.1eV hits the diode. When the
photon enters the depletion region of diode, it hits the atom
with high energy. This results in release of electron from atom
structure. After the electron release, free electrons and hole
are produced.
Dr. Samarth Borker
In general, an electron will have
negative charge and holes will have a positive
charge. The depletion energy will have built in
electric filed. Due to that electric filed, electron
hole pairs moves away from the junction. Hence,
holes move to anode and electrons move to
cathode to produce photo current. The photon
absorption intensity and photon energy are
directly proportional to each other. When energy
of photos is less, the absorption will be more. This
entire process is known as Inner Photoelectric
Effect.
Intrinsic Excitations and Extrinsic
Excitations are the two methods via which the
photon excitation happens. The process of
intrinsic excitation happens, when an electron in
the valence band is excited by photon to
conduction band.
8
 Construction of Photodiode

The figure below shows the constructional detail of a

photodiode: The PN junction of the device placed
inside a glass material. This is done to order to allow
the light energy to pass through it. As only the
junction is exposed to radiation, thus, the other
portion of the glass material is painted black or is
metallised.

The overall unit is of very small dimension

nearly about 2.5 mm.

It is noteworthy that the current flowing

through the device is in micro-ampere and is
measured through an ammeter.

Dr. Samarth Borker https://circuitglobe.com/photodiode.html 9

 Modes of operation of a Photo Diode
Photodiode operates in three different modes namely:
Photovoltaic mode,
Photoconductive mode,
and Avalanche diode mode.

Photovoltaic Mode

This is otherwise called as Zero Bias mode. When a

photodiode operates low frequency applications and ultra-level
light applications, this mode is preferred. When photodiode is
irradiated by flash of light, voltage is produced. The voltage
produced will be in very small dynamic range and it has a non-
linear characteristic. When photodiode is configured with OP-
AMP in this mode, there will be a very less variation with
temperature.

Dr. Samarth Borker 10

Photoconductive Mode
In this mode, photodiode will act in reverse biased
condition. Cathode will be positive and anode will be negative.
When the reverse voltage increases, the width of the depletion
layer also increases. Due to this the response time and junction
capacitance will be reduced. Comparatively this mode of
operation is fast and produces electronic noise.

Transimpedance amplifiers are used as preamplifiers

for photodiodes. Modes of Such amplifiers keep the voltage
maintains to be constant to make photo diode operate in the
photoconductive mode.

Avalanche Diode Mode

In this mode, avalanche diode operates at a high

reverse bias condition. It allows multiplication of an avalanche
breakdown to each photo-produced electron-hole pair. Hence,
this produces internal gain within photodiode. The internal gain
increases the device response.

Dr. Samarth Borker 11

 Connecting a Photodiode in an External Circuit

A photodiode operates in a circuit in reverse bias.

Anode is connected to circuit ground and cathode to positive
supply voltage of the circuit. When illuminated by light, current
flows from cathode to anode.

When photodiodes are used with external circuits,

they are connected to a power source in the circuit. The
amount of current produced by a photodiode will be very
small. This value of current will not be enough to drive an
electronic device. So when they are connected to an external
power source, it delivers more current to the circuit. So, battery
is used as a power source. The battery source helps to increase
the current value, which helps the external devices to have a
better performance

Dr. Samarth Borker 12

V-I Characteristics of Photodiode
Photodiode operates in reverse bias
condition. Reverse voltages are plotted along
X axis in volts and reverse current are plotted
along Y-axis in microampere. Reverse current
does not depend on reverse voltage. When
there is no light illumination, reverse current
will be almost zero. The minimum amount of
current present is called as Dark Current.
Once when the light illumination increases,
reverse current also increases linearly.

Advantages of Photodiode
•It shows a quick response when exposed to light.
•Photodiode offers high operational speed.
•It provides a linear response.
•It is a low-cost device.

Disadvantages of Photodiode
•It is a temperature dependent device. And shows poor temperature stability.
Dr. Samarth Borker
•When low illumination is provided, then amplification is necessary.
13
 Applications of Photodiode

•In a simple day to day applications, photodiodes are used. The reason for their use is their linear response of
photodiode to a light illumination. When more amount of light falls on the sensor, it produces high amount of
current. The increase in current will be displayed on a galvanometer connected to the circuit.

•Photodiodes helps to provide an electric isolation with help of optocouplers. When two isolated circuits are
illuminated by light, optocouplers is used to couple the circuit optically. But the circuits will be isolated
electrically. Compared to conventional devices, optocouplers are fast.

•Photodiodes are applied in safety electronics like fire and smoke detectors. It is also used in TV units.

•When utilized in cameras, they act as photo sensors. It is used in scintillators charge-coupled devices,
photoconductors, and photomultiplier tubes.

•Photodiodes are also widely used in numerous medical applications like instruments to analyze samples,
detectors for computed tomography and also used in blood gas monitors.

Dr. Samarth Borker 14

 10. Photoconductive Cells
Photoelectric Transducer

Definition: The photoelectric transducer converts the

light energy into electrical energy. It is made of semiconductor
material. The photoelectric transducer uses a photosensitive
element, which ejects the electrons when the beam of light
absorbs through it.

The discharges of electrons vary the property of the

photosensitive element. Hence the current induces in the
devices. The magnitude of the current is equal to the total light
absorbed by the photosensitive element.
https://circuitglobe.com/photoelectric-transducer.html
The below shows the scheme of semiconductor material

Dr. Samarth Borker 15

 The photoelectric transducer absorbs the radiation of
light which falls on their semiconductor material. The
absorption of light energizes the electrons of the material, and
hence the electrons start moving. The mobility of electrons
produces one of the three effects.

1.The resistance of the material changes.

2.The output current of the semiconductor changes.
3.The output voltage of the semiconductor changes.

Classification of Photoelectric Transducers

The photoelectric transducers are classified into
following ways.

Photoemissive Cell
The Photoemissive cell converts the photons into
electric energy. It consists the anode rode and the cathode
plate. The anode and cathode are coated with a Photoemissive
material called caesium antimony.

Dr. Samarth Borker 16

 When the radiation of light fall on cathode plates the
electrons starts flowing from anode to cathode. Both the anode
and the cathode are sealed in a closed, opaque evacuated
tube. When the radiation of light fall on the sealed tube, the
electrons starts emitting from the cathode and moves towards
the anode.

The anode is kept to the positive potential. Thus, the

photoelectric current starts flowing through the anode. The
magnitude of the current is directly proportional to the
intensity of light passes through it.

Dr. Samarth Borker 17

Photoconductive Cell

The photoconductive cell converts the

light energy into an electric current. It uses the
semiconductor material like cadmium selenide, Ge,
Se, as a photo sensing element.

When the beam of light falls on the semiconductor

material, their conductivity increases and the material works
like a closed switch. The current starts flowing into the material
and deflects the pointer of the meter.

18
 Photo-voltaic cell

The photovoltaic cell is the type of active transducer.

The current starts flowing into the photovoltaic cell when the
load is connected to it. The silicon and selenium are used as a
semiconductor material. When the semiconductor material
absorbs heat, the free electrons of the material starts moving.
This phenomenon is known as the photovoltaic effect.

The movements of electrons develop the current in

the cell, and the current is known as the photoelectric current.

Dr. Samarth Borker 19

Photodiode

The photodiode is a semiconductor material which

converts the light into the current. The electrons of the
semiconductor material start moving when the photodiode
absorbs the light energy. The response time of the photodiode
is very less. It is designed for working in reverse bias.
photo-diode

20
Phototransistor

The phototransistor is a device that converts the light

energy into electric energy. It produces both the current and
voltage.

The photovoltaic cell is a bipolar device which is

made of semiconductor material. The semiconductor material
is enclosed in an opaque container in which the light easily
reaches to the photosensitive element. The element absorbs
light, and the current starts flowing from base to emitter of the
device. This current is converted into the voltages.

https://circuitglobe.com/photoelectric-transducer.html
21
11. IR emitters
Pin Diagram of IR LED
IR LED | Infrared LED | Infrared Sensor

An Infrared light emitting diode (IR LED) is a special

purpose LED emitting infrared rays ranging from 700 nm to 1
mm wavelength. Different IR LEDs may produce infrared light of
differing wavelengths, just like different LEDs produce light of
different colors.

IR LEDs are usually made of gallium arsenide or

aluminium gallium arsenide. In complement with IR receivers,
these are commonly used as sensors.

The appearance of IR LED is same as a common LED.

Since the human eye cannot see the infrared radiations, it is
not possible for a person to identify if an IR LED is working. A
camera on a cell phone camera solves this problem. The IR rays
from the IR LED in the circuit are shown in the camera.
22
 An IR LED is a type of diode or simple semiconductor.
Electric current is allowed to flow in only one direction in
diodes. As the current flows, electrons fall from one part of the
diode into holes on another part. In order to fall into these
holes, the electrons must shed energy in the form of photons,
which produce light.

It is necessary to modulate the emission from IR

diode to use it in electronic application to prevent spurious
triggering. Modulation makes the signal from IR LED stand out
above the noise. Infrared diodes have a package that is opaque
to visible light but transparent to infrared. The massive use of
IR LEDs in remote controls and safety alarm systems has
drastically reduced the pricing of IR diodes in the market.

Dr. Samarth Borker 23

IR sensor
An IR sensor is a device that detects IR radiation
falling on it. Proximity sensors (used in touchscreen phones and
edge avoiding robots), contrast sensors (used in line following
robots) and obstruction counters/sensors (used for counting
goods and in burglar alarms) are some applications involving IR
sensors.

Principle of Working
An IR sensor consists of two parts, the emitter circuit
and the receiver circuit. This is collectively known as a photo-
coupler or an optocoupler.
The emitter is an IR LED and the detector is an IR Applications
photodiode. The IR phototdiode is sensitive to the IR light Proximity Sensors
emitted by an IR LED. The photo-diode’s resistance and output Line Follower Robots
voltage change in proportion to the IR light received. This is the Item Counter
underlying working principle of the IR sensor.
Burglar Alarm
The type of incidence can be direct incidence or
indirect incidence. In direct incidence, the IR LED is placed in https://electronicsforu.com/electronics-projects/infrared-object-counter

front of a photodiode with no obstacle in between. In indirect https://electronicsforu.com/electronics-projects/hardware-diy/line-follower-robot-project

incidence, both the diodes are placed side by side with an https://electronicsforu.com/resources/learn-electronics/ir-led-infrared-sensor-basics

opaque object in front of the sensor. The light from the IR LED https://circuitdigest.com/electronic-circuits/ir-transmitter-and-receiver-circuit
24
hits the opaque surface and reflects back to the photodiode.
 12. Solar Cells
Photovoltaic or Solar Cell

Definition: The Photovoltaic cell is the semiconductor

device that converts the light into electrical energy. The voltage
induces by the PV cell depends on the intensity of light incident
on it. The name Photovoltaic is because of their voltage
producing capability.

The electrons of the semiconductor material are

joined together by the covalent bond. The electromagnetic
radiations are made of small energy particles called photons.
When the photons are incident on the semiconductor material,
then the electrons become energised and starts emitting.

The energises electron is known as the

Photoelectrons. And the phenomenon of emission of electrons
is known as the photoelectric effect. The working of the
Photovoltaic cell depends on the photoelectric effect.

Dr. Samarth Borker 25

Construction of Photovoltaic Cell

The semiconductor materials like arsenide, indium,

cadmium, silicon, selenium and gallium are used for making the
PV cells. Mostly silicon and selenium are used for making the
cell.

Consider the figure below shows the constructions of

the silicon photovoltaic cell. The upper surface of the cell is
made of the thin layer of the p-type material so that the light
can easily enter into the material. The metal rings are placed
around p-type and n-type material which acts as their positive
and negative output terminals respectively.

The multi-crystalline or monocrystalline semiconductor material make the single unit of the PV cell. The
mono-crystal cell is cut from the volume of the semiconductor material. The multicell are obtained from the material
which has many sides.

The output voltage and current obtained from the single unit of the cell is very less. The magnitude of the
output voltage is 0.6v, and that of the current is 0.8v. The different combinations of cells are used for increasing the
output efficiency. There are three possible ways of combining the PV cells.

https://www.daenotes.com/electronics/industrial-electronics/solar-cell-working-construction 26
 Series Combination of PV Cells
If more than two cells are connected in
series with each other, then the output current
of the cell remains same, and their input voltage
becomes doubles. The graph below shows the
output characteristic of the PV cells when
connected in series
Dr. Samarth Borker
Parallel Combination of PV cells
In the parallel combination of the cells, the
voltage remains same, and the magnitude of current
becomes double. The characteristic curve of the
parallel combination of cells is represented below.
27
Working of PV cell
The light incident on the semiconductor material may
be pass or reflected through it. The PV cell is made of the
semiconductor material which is neither a complete conductor
nor an insulator. This property of semiconductor material
makes it more efficient for converting the light energy into
electric energy.

When the semiconductor material absorbs light, the

electrons of the material starts emitting. This happens because
the light consists small energize particles called photons. When
the electrons absorb the photons, they become energized and
starts moving into the material. Because of the effect of an
electric field, the particles move only in the one direction and The junction is the interface between
develops current. The semiconductor materials have the the p-type and n-type material. When the light
metallic electrodes through which the current goes out of it. fall on the junction the electrons starts moving
from one region to another.
Consider the figure below shows the PV cell made of
silicon and the resistive load is connected across it. The PV cell
consists the P and N-type layer of semiconductor material.
These layers are joined together to form the PN junction. https://circuitglobe.com/photovoltaic-or-solar-cell.html
28
 How Solar Cell Install on the Solar Power Plant?
Maximum power point tracker, inverter, charge
controller and battery are the name of the apparatus used for
converting the radiation into an electrical voltage.
Dr. Samarth Borker
Maximum Power Point Tracker – It’s a
special kind of digital tracker that follows the
location of the sun. The efficiency of the PV cell
depends on the intensity of sunlight fall on it. The
power of the sun varies with the time because of
the movement of the earth. So for absorbing the
maximum light, the panel needs to be moved
along with the sun. Thereby the maximum power
point tracker is used with the solar panel.
Charge Controller – The charge controller
regulates the voltage drawn from the panel. It also
protects the battery from the overcharging or
overvoltage.
Inverter – The inverter converts the
direct current into the alternating current and vice
versa. The conversion is essential because some of
the appliances require ac supply for their work.
29
13. Phototransistor,
Definition: A Phototransistor is a device that has the
ability to detect the level of the incident radiation and
accordingly change the flow of electric current between
emitter and collector terminal. It is a 3-layer semiconductor
device that consists of a light sensitive base region.
It is basically a transistor whose action depends on
the application of light. Hence named phototransistor.
The phototransistor is basically an enhancement of
Photodiode. Both photodiode and phototransistor are light
sensing device but the sensitivity of phototransistor is
somewhat more as compared to the photodiode. As
phototransistor has the ability to give larger gain than that of
the photodiode. It is similar to a normal BJT but the only
variation is that in phototransistor, virtually the base region
exists but it is kept unconnected with the external supply.
This means that as in normal BJT, base
current is used to drive the circuit, however, in
phototransistor light energy falling on the base
region acts as the overall input of the device.
A phototransistor is said to exhibit the
combined operation of the photodiode as well as a
normal transistor.
It operates on the principle of
Photoelectric effect. As it changes light signal
incidenting on its surface into its electrical
equivalent form. And the transistor action permits it
to perform amplification of the current flowing
through it.
30
 Construction of Phototransistor
As we have already discussed that a phototransistor
is nothing but a normal transistor whose action depends on the
incident radiation falling at its base. At the time of constructing
the phototransistor, the base and collector region is provided
with a larger area in comparison to a normal BJT.
The figure below represents the constructional
structure of an NPN Phototransistor:
Dr. Samarth Borker
Here, as we can see that the light is
majorly allowed to incident at the base collector
junction. Initially, phototransistors were fabricated
from silicon or germanium as their basic material
that resultantly provides homojunction structure.
However, in recent times, these are
constructed using materials likes gallium or
arsenide. Thereby, providing a heterojunction
structure. This is so because these structures
exhibit large conversion efficiency.
This implies they are more capable of
changing light energy into electrical energy as
compared to homojunction transistors.
Phototransistors are mainly enclosed in a
metallic case that consists of the lens at the top in
order to gather the incident radiation.
31
Symbol of Phototransistor Working of Phototransistor

The figure below represents the symbolic The operation of a phototransistor depends on the
representation of a Phototransistor: intensity of radiation falling at its base region.

Its working is almost similar to a normal transistor,

however; the variation lies in the input current that drives the
circuit. And in the case of a phototransistor, the incident light
generates driving current.

The figure below represents the biasing arrangement

of a phototransistor:

Here, the symbolic representation

is almost similar to a normal BJT but the only
variation is the presence of two inward
arrows at the base region that shows the
incident of light radiation.

https://electronicsdesk.com/phototransistor.html

32
 In the circuit arrangement, we can clearly see that the base region is kept unconnected with
the external supply voltage and is used as the region for radiation incidence.

Only the collector region is connected to the positive side of the supply provided along with
emitter which is connected to the negative side. However, the output is taken at the emitter terminal of
the transistor.

When no any light is allowed to incident at the base region of the transistor, the due to
temperature variation, movement of minority carriers across the junction generates a very small current
through the transistor which is reverse saturation current basically termed as dark current.

Here, the base current IB is majorly 0.

Here, in this case, the output current will be less as compared to supply provided.

But, when a certain amount of light energy is allowed to fall at the base of the transistor, then
electron and hole pair gets generated. The applied electric field causes the electrons to move into the
emitter region, thereby generating large electric current.

Dr. Samarth Borker 33

The figure below represents the circuit of a phototransistor:

As the intensity of the light falling at the base region

is increased, the current through the device also increases.
Here, the generated photocurrent majorly depends on the
illumination provided to the base.

https://electronicsdesk.com/phototransistor.html

34
 Characteristics Curve of Phototransistor Here x-axis represents the voltage applied at
the collector-emitter terminal of the transistor and y-axis
The figure below represents the characteristics curve of represents the collector current that flows through the
phototransistor: device in mill amperes.

As all the curves in the above figure are clearly

indicating that current increases with the intensity of the
radiation that falls at the base region.

Also, the figure below represents the variation

in the base current with the variation in the light
intensity.

Dr. Samarth Borker 35

Advantages of Phototransistor
These are a highly sensitive optoelectronic device.
It is less complex and inexpensive.
Phototransistors provides a large output current with high gain.

Disadvantages of Phototransistor
It provides a low-frequency response.
In the case when a small amount of illumination is provided, the circuit is not able to detect it effectively.
Electric surges are more severe in phototransistors rather than a photodiode.
Phototransistors gets affected by the variation in electromagnetic energy.

Applications of Phototransistor
In light controlling and detection: As phototransistors are a very sensitive light detector. Thus these are widely used
in light detection and controlling applications.
In an indication of level and relays: The device finds its uses in indicating the level of some systems because of
their light sensing ability.
In counting systems: Phototransistors can be effectively utilized in counting systems. As it has tremendous ability to
combinely operate as photodiode and transistors. Thus, failure of supply will not cause much adverse effects on the
system.
In punch card readers: Phototransistors widely finds its applications in punch card reading. 36
14. Opto-isolator.
Photocouplers, Opto-couplers & Opto-isolators

An optoisolator or an optocoupler is a device that

transfers electrical signals between two electrically isolated
circuits through light energy. Opto-isolators prevent the high
voltages in one part of the circuit from affecting or destroying
other parts of the system.

Basic Construction of Optoisolator

Opto-isolator is a device, which has two diodes: One

is a source or emitter of light, usually a light emitting diode
(LED) and other is photodiode acting as the photosensor. The
LED converts an electrical input signal into light, and the
photodiode detects incoming light and based on the incoming
light either generates corresponding electric energy. A basic
optocoupler is shown below

https://www.electronics-otes.com/articles/electronic_components/transistor/what-
https://www.electrical4u.com/optoisolator-construction-and-operating-principle-of-optoisolator/
is-a-photocoupler-optocoupler-optoisolator.php 37
Operating Principle of Optoisolator
The working principle of optoisolator is simple and
interesting. The output signal of one circuit can be controlled
by varying input signal in another circuit, where the two circuits
are electrically isolated. A powerful light emitting diode (LED) is
connected across a variable voltage source. By adjusting the
input voltage across the LED, the intensity of the light emitted
from the LED can be controlled. The variable source and the
LED form the input circuit of the optocoupler or optoisolator.
A photodiode is present in front of the LED so that
the light from the LED directly strikes the junction of the
photodiode. The photodiode is in reverse biased condition. The
reverse biased circuit of the photodiode forms the output
circuit of the system. It is also ensured that there is no other
light falling on the photodiode junction and the system is
protected from any external light, except the light coming from
the LED. Initially, no voltage is applied to the LED; hence the
LED does not glow. In this condition as no light falls on the
photodiode, there would be only dark current flowing through
the output circuit.
Dark current is the reverse
saturation current of the reverse biased
photodiode when it entire dark. This is the
unavoidable reverse leakage current of the
diode. Now, if we increase the voltage across
the LED, the LED starts glowing and at same
time intensity of the light increases with
increasing input voltage across the LED.
With increasing light intensity, the reverse
current in the photodiode increases, since
the reverse current in a photodiode is linearly
proportional to the intensity of light falling
on the photodiode junction. Also, if we
decrease the intensity of light in the input,
the output photodiode current will decrease.
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Optocoupler and opto-isolator specifications

There are several parameters and specifications that need to be taken into account when using opto-couplers and opto-
isolators:

Current transfer ratio, CTR: The current transfer ratio of an optocoupler is one of the key specifications. It is the ratio
of the current that flows in the output device divided by the current on the input device. The CTR will vary according to
the type of opto-coupler used in the output, those using photodarlingtons will be much higher than those using
ordinary phototransistors. Values may be anywhere between 10% and 2000% - 5000%It should be noted that the CTR
tends to vary with the the input current level. Although it will vary according to the device, for man optocouplers it will
peak for input current levels around 10mA falling either side of this value.

Bandwidth: In order to understand the maximum data rates that can be sued with an opto-coupler, it is necessary to
know the bandwidth. For many opto-couplers using phototransistors it may only be in the region of 250 kHz, and for
those using photodarlingtons it may be a tenth of this figure. Some much faster optocouplers are available. Typically the
lower the CTR, the faster the rise and fall times

Input current: This is the current required for the input transmitter device - LED. The value is used to calculate the
series resistor used to limit the current.

Output device maximum voltage: For opto-couplers using transistors, the maximum figure willb e equal to the
VCE(max) for the transistor. For opto-couplers using other devices in the output, the equivalent rating should be used.
Also remember that a suitable margin should be retained as it is never advisable to operate devices close tot heir
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maximum ratings. https://www.electronics-notes.com/articles/electronic_components/transistor/what-is-a-photocoupler-optocoupler-optoisolator.php
Applications of Optoisolator

Optocouplers or of Optoisolators are used in,

Lamp Ballasts
Light Dimmers
Valve or Motor Controllers
Microcontrollers for interfacing with High Voltage Circuits.

Self study Topic

Opto-Diacs Pin Description:

Working of CRO
and measurements
using CRO.

https://www.elprocus.com/opto-couplers-types-applications/
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 Disclaimer

Although I have made every effort to ensure that the information in this presentation is correct,
However I do not assume and disclaim any liability to any party for any loss , damage or disruption caused
by errors or omissions, whether such errors or omissions result from negligence, accident, or any other
cause.
Images used may be subject to copyright. Rights belong to the original creators.
The information presented in this presentation is meant to supplement and not replace
professional guidance or training.
This information is presented solely for educational purpose and not for any business or
commercial gains. The author is not offering it as legal, or other professional services advice.
The questions posted are solely based on past question papers, I do not have ownership or control
over the nature and content of those questions. I am not responsible for any discrepancies concerning the
duplicity of content over those questions.

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 Students Note:
Refer standard textbooks in the subject for the in-depth detailed understanding of the concept. If any errors
might have crept in inadvertently, kindly bring them to my notice. samarthgec@gmail.com

Dr. Samarth Borker

Asst. Professor
Dept. of E & TC
Goa College of Engineering
15.05.2020

http://samarthborkar.simplesite.com/
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 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UL_Z-12-2vM

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=U85qDpmouhc https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-XXGTH_eSw8

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=msNdus02DjY https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZW7-3z4mGos
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