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UNIT I
PN JUNCTION DIODE AND ITS APPLICATIONS
1. Define drift current?
Drift current is developed due to potential gradient and the Phenomenon found
both in semiconductors & metals.
When a diode is reversed biased, the width of the depletion region increases. Due
to this the p region and n region act like a plates of capacitor while the depletion region
acts as dielectric. Thus there exists a capacitance called transition capacitance.
The two type of materials namely p-type and n-type are chemically combined
with a special fabrication technique to form p-n junction. This p-n junction forms a
semiconductor device called p-n junction diode.
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7. What are the advantages of bridge rectifier over center tapped counterpart?
The ripple factor and efficiency are same as full wave rectifier.
The bulky center tapped transformer is not required.
8. What is meant by depletion region?
In PN junction, the diffusion of holes and electrons start initially. Near the junction,
holes recombine in N-region to form immobile positive ions. Similarly electrons recombine
in P-region to form immobile negative ions. With sufficient accumulation of such immobile
ions on both sides, the diffusion stops. So near the junction, there exists a region in which
immobile positive and negative charge reside while mobile charge carriers in this region get
completely depleted. This region is called depletion region.
At a certain reverse voltage, current through Zener diode increases rapidly. The
change from low value to large value of current is very sharp and well defined. Such a
sharp change in the reverse characteristics is called Knee or Zener Knee of the curve.
When diode is switched from forward biased to the reverse biased state or vice
versa, it takes finite time to attain a steady state. This time consists of Transient and an
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interval of time before the diode attains a steady state. The Behavior of the diode during
this time is called switching characteristics of the diode.
11. Define and explain peak inverse voltage (PIV)?
Peak inverse voltage is the maximum reverse voltage that can be applied to the
PN junction without damage to the junction. If the reverse voltage across the junction
exceeds to its peak inverse voltage, the junction may be destroyed due to excessive heat.
13. Explain the terms knee voltage & break down voltage with respect to diodes?
Knee voltage:It is the forward voltage of a PN diode at which the current through
the junction starts increasing rapidly.
I=Io [eV/ηVT – 1]
I = diode current
Io = reverse saturation current in amperes
V = applied voltage
η = 1 for germanium diode, 2 for silicon diode
VT = voltage equivalent of temperature
RF = vrms / vdc
Unit- 2
Bipolar Junction Transistor
Transistor consists of two junctions formed by sandwiching either p type or n type semiconductor
between a pair of opposite types.
*PNP transistor
2. Define BJT?
A bipolar junction transistor is a three terminal semiconductor device in which the operation
depends on the interaction of both majority and minority carriers and hence the name bipolar.
h11 = hie - The input impedance of the transistor (corresponding to the emitter resistance re).Unit ohms Ώ.
h22 = hoe - The output impedance of transistor. This term is usually specified as admittance and has to be
inverted to convert it to impedance. Units’ siemans S.
A transistor is called a current controlled device. This is because; collector current is controlled
by base current. The changes in collector current are proportional to the corresponding changes in base
current.
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In common emitter configuration, input characteristics is the plot obtained by tracing the
variation of input current IB with the input voltage VBE. Similarly, the variation of output current I C with
the Collector to emitter voltage VCE is known as output characteristics.
7. Define h parameters?
One of a set of four transistor equivalent-circuit parameters that conveniently specify transistor
performance for small voltages and currents in a particular circuit. Also known as hybrid parameter.
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Any linear circuit can be analyzed by four parameters (input resistance, reverse voltage gain,
forward current gain and output admittance) of mixed dimensions. Since the dimensions of the
parameters have mixed units they are referred as h-parameters. The h-parameters are determined by
both open circuit and short circuit terminations.
FET BJT
The Q point or quiescent point or operating point where DC load line intersects proper base
current curve. The coordinates of Q point decides the zero values of IC and VCE in a common emitter
transistor.
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12. In a bipolar transistor which region is wider and which region is thinner? Why?
The middle region of bipolar junction transistor is called as the base of the transistor. Input
signal of small amplitude is applied to the base. This region is thin and lightly doped. The magnified
output signal is obtained at the collector. This region is thick and heavily doped.
The excess heat produced at the collector base junction may even burn and
destroy the transistor. The self destruction of an unbiased transistor is known as thermal runaway.
To avoid thermal run away the operating point of the circuit is to be stabilized.
14. Define the delay time and rise time in the switching characteristics of transistor?
In the transistor switching characteristics the delay time is the time that elapses the
application of the input pulse and current to rise to 10 percent of its maximum value. The time required
for IC to reach 90% of its maximum level from 10% level is called the rise time.
15. When a transistor is used as a switch, in which region of output characteristics it is operated?
When a transistor is used as a switch it is operated alternately in the cut off region and
saturation region of the output characteristics.
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A transistor should be operated in saturation and cut off regions to use it as a switch. While
operating in saturation region, transistor carry heavy current hence considered as ON state. In cut-
off, it carries no current and it is equivalent to open switch.
18. Why do the output characteristics of a CB transistor have a slight upward slope?
The emitter and collector are forward biased under the saturation region. Hence a small
change in collector voltage causes a significant change in collector current. Therefore the slight upward
slope is found in output characteristics.
It is the ratio of injected carrier current reaching at collector base junction to injected carrier
current at emitter base junction.
β = I pC / I PE
The time required for I C to reach 90% of its maximum level from 10% level is called rise time, tr
The current gain (β) of common emitter configuration is defined as the ratio of change in
collector current to change in base current when collector emitter voltage is kept constant.
IC / I
B
β is also referred as hfe.
Process of maintaining proper flow of zero signal collector current and collector emitter voltage
during the passage of signal. Biasing keeps emitter base junction forward biased and collector base
junction reverse biased during the passage of signal.
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23. What are the various methods used for transistor biasing? Which one is popular?
Obtaining the exact value of h-parameters for a particular transistor is quite difficult.
Highly suitable only for small ac signals.
25. What is the basic difference between bias compensation and stabilization?
Individual variations
Temperature dependence of collector current
Thermal runaway
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UNIT 3
FET AND ITS APPLICATIONS
1. Define FET?
A field effect transistor (FET) is a three terminal semiconductor device which can be used as an
amplifier or switch. The three terminals are Drain (D), Source (S), and Gate (G).
2. Define channel?
It is a bar like structure which determines the type of FET. Different types of N channel
are FET and P channel FET.
3. Draw the transfer characteristic for n-channel depletion type MOSFET?
Transfer characteristic:
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This is just one type of MOSFET, called 'normally -off' because it is only the application of a
positive gate voltage above the critical voltage which allows it to pass current between source and
drain..
Another type of MOSFET is the 'normally-on', which has a conductive channel of less heavily
doped n-type material between the source and drain electrodes.
9. What are the advantages of FET over BJT?
In FET input resistance is high compared to BJT
Construction is smaller than BJT
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The parameters of FET are temperature dependent. In FET, as temperature increases drain
resistance also increases, reducing the drain current. Thus unlike BJT, thermal runaway does not
occur with FET. Thus we can say FET is more temperature stable.
FET has very high input impedance. Hence FET is preferred in amplifiers.
It is less noisy.
Requires less space.
It exhibits no offset voltage at zero drain current.
11 Explain the biasing of JFET?
Input is always reverse biased and output is forward biased. (Note: In transistor input is
forward biased and output is reverse biased).
12. Define Drain resistance.
It is the ratio of change in Drain – source voltage (∆VDS) to the change in Drain current
(∆ID) at constant gate source voltage (VGS).
13. Define Tran’s conductance?
It is the ratio of change in drain current (∆ID) to the change in Gate – Source Voltage
(∆VGS) at constant Drain – Source voltage (VDS)
14. Write the advantages of JFET?
Input impedance of JFET is very high.
This allows high degree of Isolation between the Input and Output circuit.
Current carriers are not crossing the junction hence noise is reduced drastically
15. List the JFET parameters?
A.C drain resistance (rd)
Trans conductance (gm)
Amplification factor (µ)
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ID = IDSS (1 – VGS )2
Vp
ID = drain current
IDSS = saturation drain current
VGS = gate source voltage
VP = pinch-off voltage
26. Why MOSFET is called IGFET?
MOSFET is constructed with gate terminal insulated from the channel. So it is also called
as insulated gate FET or IGFET.
27. Comparison between JFET and MOSFET
JFET MOSFET
Gate is not insulated from channel Gate is insulated from channel by a thin layer of
SiO2
There are two types – N-channel and P- Four types - P-channel enhancement, P-channel
channel depletion, N-channel enhancement, N-channel
depletion
Cannot be operated in depletion and Can be operated in depletion and enhancement
enhancement modes modes
There is a continuous channel There is a continuous channel only in depletion
type, but not in enhancement type
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UNIT 4
AMPLIFIERS AND OSCILLATORS
1. Define amplifier
A device which accepts an input signal and produces an output signal proportional to the input is
called an amplifier.
2. List out the some features of a differential amplifier?
High differential voltage gain.
Low common mode gain.
High CMRR.
Two input terminals.
High input impedance.
Large bandwidth.
Low offset voltages and currents.
Low output impedance.
3. List the advantages of negative feedback?
Less noise
Less frequency distortion
Less amplitude distortion
Less phase distortion
Less harmonic distortion
Band width is increased
4. What are the types of feedback amplifiers?
Classify various feedback amplifiers?
Voltage series feedback.
Voltage shunt feedback
Current series feedback and Current shunt feedback.
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Bandwidth is increased.
Linearity of operation is improved.
Noise and Distortion is reduced.
12. What is the Difference between amplifier and oscillator?
S.no Amplifier Oscillator
1. An amplifier requires some A.C input which We get A.c.output from the oscillator circuit.
will be amplified.
2. It needs some external signal. An oscillator doesn't need any external AC signal.
3. an amplifier effectively converts DC to AC. Oscillator circuits also DC power is converted to AC.
But there is no AC input signal.
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Significance:
High differential voltage gain.
Low common mode gain.
High CMRR.
Two input terminal.
High input impedance, Low output impedance.
Large bandwidth.
Low offset voltages and currents.
17. Define feedback and types?
The process of injecting a fraction of the output voltage of an amplifier into the input so that it
becomes a part of the input is known as feedback.
1. Positive feedback.
It is the feedback voltage in phase with the input from the source; it reinforces the original
input signal and is called positive or regenerative feedback.
2. Negative feedback.
If the feedback voltage is opposite in phase to the input from the source, i.e., opposes the original
input signal and is called negative or degenerative feedback.
18. Explain the voltage series feedback?
In this case, the feedback voltage is derived from the output voltage and fed in series with input
signal. The input of the amplifier and the feedback network are in series is also known as series parallel
in parallel, hence this configuration is also known as series parallel feedback network.
19. Explain the voltage shunt feedback?
The input of amplifier and the feedback network are in parallel and known as parallel –
parallel feedback network. This type of feedback to the ideal current to voltage converter, a
circulating having very low input impedance and very low output impedance.
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UNIT 5
PULSE CIRCUITS
. What is clamper?
Explain about clamper.
Thecircuit with which the waveform can be shifted, such that, a particular part of it (say positive
or negative peak) is maintained at a specified level, is called a clamping circuit or simply a clamper
2. What is meant by a clipper?
The circuit with which waveform is shaped by removing a certain portion of the input signal
voltage above or below a preset level is called clipper. They are also called limiters when they are used
to limit the amplitude of the input signal.
3. Define Multi vibrators.
There is a class of RC coupled oscillators called Multivibrators which generate non-sinusoidal
waveforms such as triangular square and saw tooth.
4. What do you mean by Monostable multivibrator?
It is also called the one shot multivibrator. The one shot multivibrator is driven, it is not free
running unlike the bistable trigger, and the monostable has one stable state to which it returns after the
eternal driving pulse has caused it to execute its cycle.
5. What is a Schmitt Trigger?
When the input is sinusoidal signal and converted to square waveform in output is called
Schmitt trigger. Generation of pulses when the voltage level rises to a certain value is achieved by using
a circuit.
6. Define intrinsic standoff ratio of UJT and draw its equivalent circuit.
The intrinsic standoff ratio η is the ratio of RB1 to RBBO. Denoted by ?.
RBBO = RB1+RB2
? = RB1/ (RB1+RB2)
? = RB1/RBBO
The range of ? is from 0.5 to 0.8. the voltage V RB0is called intrinsic standoff voltage because it
keeps the emitter diode reversed biased for all the emitter voltage less than VRB0.
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The astable multivibrator is used as square wave generator, voltage to frequency convertor
and in pulse synchronization, as clock for binary logic signals and so on.
Since it produces square waves it is a source of production of harmonic frequencies of higher
order,
22. Write the applications of monostable multivibrator.
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