ECEG 4123 Electrical Machines: Transformer

09-05-2021
Transformer
ECEG 4123 • It consists of two windings insulated from each other and wound on a
common core made up of a magnetic material.
Electrical Machines • AC voltage is connected across one of the windings called primary
Chapter 2: Transformer winding.
• Load is connected to the other winding called the secondary winding.

Dr.M.Karthikeyan
Dept. of Electrical and Computer Engineering • In both windings, EMF is induced by electromagnetic induction.
Presented by Dr.M.Karthikeyan, AP/ECE, WSU 1 Presented by Dr.M.Karthikeyan, AP/ECE, WSU 3
What is a Transformer? Principle of operation
• A transformer is a static electrical machine which transfers electrical It is based on principle

of MUTUAL
energy from one circuit to another without changing the frequency. INDUCTION.
According to which an
• A transformer is a static electrical machine which raises or lowers e.m.f. is induced in a
voltage or current at the same frequency. coil when current in the
neighbouring coil
• It works on the principle of MUTUAL INDUCTION. changes.
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09-05-2021
Transformer Magnetic Core

• Magnetic circuit consists of an iron
core.
• Core is made up of stacks of thin
laminations (0.35mm thickness) of Cold
Rolled Grain Oriented (CRGO) silicon
steel.
• These laminations are lightly insulated
with varnish.
• Two types of magnetic circuit are core
type and shell type.
Constructional details Magnetic Core

• Main Components of a Transformer are,
 Magnetic core
 Primary & Secondary windings
 Insulation of windings
 Conservator tank & Explosion vent
 Bushings
 Buchholz relay
 Breather
 Cooling arrangements
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Core type construction Windings

• In the core type, the windings are wound around two legs of a rectangular
magnetic core. • A transformer has two windings namely primary and secondary.
• Windings surround the core & it has only one magnetic path. • These windings consist of a series of turns called coils, wound around
the core.
• Transformer windings are made of solid or stranded copper or

aluminium strip conductors.
Shell type construction Conservator and Explosion Vent

• In shell type, the windings are wound around the center leg of a three- • Conservator is used to provide adequate
legged core
space for the expansion of oil when
• Core surrounds the windings. transformer is loaded or when ambient
temperature changes.
• Explosion Vent is used to discharge

excess pressure developed inside the
transformer during loading, to the
atmosphere.
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Breather
Buchholz Relay
• It sucks the moisture from the air which is taken by transformer so that
dry air is taken by transformer. • It is a safety device connected between main tank and conservator
tank.
• In case of slow developing faults, it sounds an alarm to alert the

operator.
• If serious fault occur in the transformer, it disconnects the transformer

to protect it.
Bushings Losses in a Transformer

• Transformers are connected to high voltage • The power losses in a transformer are of two types, namely;
lines.
 Core or Iron losses
• Extreme care should be taken to prevent the
 Copper losses
conductors touching the transformer tank.
• So the connections in and out of the
transformer are made by the use of
bushings.
• Bushings are normally porcelain insulators.
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09-05-2021
Core or Iron losses (Pi)

Summary
• This loss consists of hysteresis and eddy current loss and occur in the Copper loss or I2R loss
Core loss
transformer core due to the alternating flux.
It is the Constant loss It is a variable loss
• These losses can be determined by open-circuit test.
Does not change even as the Also called as I2R loss
Hysteresis loss, P = K B f v watts
Eddy current loss, P = K B f t v watts load current changes Proportional to square of the load
• Both the above losses depend on Bm and frequency which are Proportional to supply voltage current
constant. and frequency Occurs in the winding resistances

• Hence, core or iron losses are practically the same at all loads. It is dissipated as heat
Copper losses (PC)

Impedance Ratio
• These losses occur in both the primary and secondary windings due to
their ohmic resistance.
• These losses can be determined by short-circuit test.
𝑃 = 𝐼 𝑅 +𝐼 𝑅 = 𝐼 𝑅 = 𝐼 𝑅
• Copper losses vary as the square of load current.
• Copper losses account for about 90% of the total losses.
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09-05-2021
Shifting Impedances Simplified Equivalent Circuit of a Transformer
• When transferring resistance or reactance from primary to secondary,

multiply it by K2.
• When transferring resistance or reactance from secondary to primary,

divide it by K2. Presented by Dr.M.Karthikeyan, AP/ECE, WSU 21 Presented by Dr.M.Karthikeyan, AP/ECE, WSU 23
Equivalent Circuit of a Transformer Equivalent Circuit Referred to Primary Side
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09-05-2021
Equivalent Circuit Referred to Primary Side Equivalent Circuit Referred to Secondary Side
Equivalent Circuit Referred to Secondary Side Testing of Transformers

• The circuit constants, efficiency and voltage regulation of a
transformer can be determined by two simple tests.
(i) Open-circuit test
(ii) Short-circuit lest
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09-05-2021
Open Circuit Test Short Circuit Test

 This test is conducted to determine R0 & X0  This test is conducted to determine R02 & X02
 Rated voltage is applied on LV side & HV side is kept open.  LV side of the Tfr is short circuited & the test is conducted on HV side.
 At no load, current taken by the transformer is 3-5% of full load  A low voltage is applied on the HV side to circulate the rated current on
current. So I2R loss is negligible. both the windings.
 Therefore power consumed by the transformer on no load is  Power drawn during this test is considered as copper loss.
considered as core loss.
Open Circuit Test Short Circuit Test

Data observed from the test Data observed from the test
 Supply voltage = V0 volts  Applied voltage = VSC volts
 No load current = I0 amps  Short circuit current = ISC amps
 Iron losses = W0 watts  Copper losses = WSC watts
W0 = V0I0 CosФ0 WSC = ISC2R02
CosФ0 = W0/(V0I0)
IW = I0 CosФ0 R02= WSC/ISC2
Im = I0 SinФ0
Z02=VSC/ISC
R0 = V1/IW
X0 = V1/Im X02=[Z022-R022]1/2
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09-05-2021
Efficiency Condition for Maximum Efficiency

• F.L. Iron loss = Pi ...from open-circuit test 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝑉 𝐼 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛷
• F.L. Cu loss = PC ...from short-circuit test If R02 is the total resistance of the transformer referred to secondary, then,
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐶𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠, 𝑃 = 𝐼 . 𝑅
• Total losses = Pi + PC
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 = 𝑃 + 𝑃
• Full-load efficiency of the transformer at any p.f.
𝑉 𝐼 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛷
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦, 𝜂 =
Full load VA × P. F 𝑉 𝐼 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛷 + 𝑃 + 𝐼 . 𝑅
F. L. efficiency, η =
Full load VA × P. F + P + P
𝑉 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛷
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦, 𝜂 =
𝑃
𝑉 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛷 + + 𝐼 .𝑅
𝐼
Efficiency Condition for Maximum Efficiency

• At any load (X times full-load), the total losses will be 𝑑
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 0
𝑃 = 𝑃 +𝑋 𝑃 𝑑𝐼
(𝑋 × 𝐹𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑉𝐴 × 𝑃. 𝐹) 𝑑 P
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑎𝑡 𝑋 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑, 𝜂 =
𝑋 × 𝐹𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑉𝐴 × 𝑃. 𝐹 + 𝑃 + 𝑋 𝑃 V cos Φ + +I .R =0
𝑑𝐼 I
• Note that iron loss remains the same at all loads.
𝑃
0− +R =0
𝐼
𝑃 = 𝐼 R
• i.e, Iron loss = Copper loss

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09-05-2021
Condition for Maximum Efficiency Output kVA Corresponding to Maximum Efficiency

• Hence efficiency of a transformer will be maximum when copper
Output kVA corresponding to max. efficiency = 𝑋 × Full load kVA
losses are equal to iron losses.
• From above equation, the load current I2 corresponding to maximum P

Output kVA corresponding to max. efficiency = Full load kVA ×
P
efficiency is given by,
• It may be noted that the value of kVA, at which the efficiency is
𝑃 maximum, is independent of p.f. of the load.
𝐼 =
R
Output kVA Corresponding to Maximum Efficiency Voltage Regulation

• PC = Copper losses at full-load kVA
• Change in secondary terminal voltage, when full load at a given power
• Pi = Iron losses factor and at rated voltage is thrown off, is expressed as a percentage
• X = Fraction of full-load kVA at which efficiency is maximum of rated terminal voltage.
• Total Cu losses = X2 PC • The change in secondary terminal voltage from no load to full load
• For maximum efficiency, Pi = X2 PC expressed as a percentage of full load voltage.
P 𝑽𝟐 𝑵.𝑳 − 𝑽𝟐 𝑭.𝑳
∴ X= % 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝑹𝒆𝒈𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
P 𝑽𝟐 𝑭.𝑳
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Voltage Regulation at Different Power factors

3. Obtain the equivalent circuit of a 200 / 400 V, 50 Hz, 1 phase
• Voltage regulation for lagging p.f at load X,
transformer from the following test data:
𝑿. 𝑰𝟐 𝑹𝟎𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝓𝟐 + 𝑿𝟎𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝓𝟐
% 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒓𝒆𝒈𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 =
𝑽𝟐
× 𝟏𝟎𝟎% O.C. test: 200 V, 0.7 A, 70 W – on L.V side.
• Voltage regulation at leading p.f at load X, S.C. test: 15 V, 10 A, 85 W – on H.V side.
𝑿. 𝑰𝟐 𝑹𝟎𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝓𝟐 − 𝑿𝟎𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝓𝟐 Calculate the secondary voltage when delivering 5 kW at 0.8 p.f
% 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒓𝒆𝒈𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑽𝟐
lagging, the primary voltage being 200 V.
• Voltage regulation at Unity p.f at load X,
𝑿. 𝑰𝟐 . 𝑹𝟎𝟐
% 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒓𝒆𝒈𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑽𝟐
From OC Test From SC Test

1. In a 25 kVA, 2000 V / 200 V transformer, the constant and variable
P = V I cos ϕ P =I R
losses are 350 W and 400 W respectively. Calculate the efficiency on P 70 P 85
cos ϕ = = R = = = 0.85 Ω
unity power factor at full load and half the full load. VI 200 × 0.7 I 10
cos ϕ = 0.5
V 15
sin ϕ = 0.866 Z = = = 1.5 Ω
I 10
I = I cos ϕ = 0.7 × 0.5 = 0.35𝐴
2. Calculate the efficiency at half and full load of a 100 kVA transformer
I = I sin ϕ = 0.7 × 0.866 = 0.606𝐴 X = Z −R
for unity and 0.8 p.f. The copper loss is 1000 W at full load and iron
V 70 X = 1.5 − 0.85
loss is 1000 W. R = = = 200 Ω
I 0.35 X = 1.235 Ω
V 70
X = = = 115.5 Ω
I 0.606
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Equivalent Circuit Referred to Primary Side • Load kVA corresponding to 5 kW is,

5000
= = 6250 𝑉𝐴
0.8
• Load current I2 while delivering 6250 VA is,
400 6250
𝐾= =2 = = 15.625 𝐴
200 400
0.85 • Total voltage drop in secondary when it carries 15.625 A is,
R = = 0.212 Ω
2 =𝐼 𝑅 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜙 + 𝑋 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜙
1.235 = 15.625 0.85 × 0.8 + 1.235 × 0.6
X = = 0.308 Ω
2 = 22.20 𝑉
• Hence the secondary voltage is,
𝑉 = 400 − 22.2 = 377.8 𝑉
Equivalent Circuit Referred to Secondary Side All Day Efficiency

• The ordinary or commercial efficiency of a transformer is defined as
the ratio of output power to the input power i.e.,
400
𝐾= =2 Output power
200 Commercial efficiency =
𝑅 = 200 × 2 = 800 Ω Input power
𝑋 = 115.5 × 2 = 462 Ω
Primaries of distribution transformers are energized all the 24 hours in a
day but the secondary windings supply little or no load during the major
portion of the day.
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09-05-2021
All Day Efficiency All Day Efficiency

• Constant loss occurs during the whole day but copper loss occurs only 4. A 40kVA distribution transformer has iron loss of 500 W and full load
when the transformer is loaded. copper loss of 500 W. the transformer is supplying a lighting load. The
• The performance of such transformers is judged on the basis of energy load cycle is as under: Full load for 4 hours, half load for 8 hours and no
consumption during the whole day (i.e., 24 hours). load for 12 hours. Calculate the all day efficiency.
• This is known as all-day or energy efficiency.
All Day Efficiency Auto Transformer

• The ratio of output in kWh to the input in kWh of a transformer over a • An autotransformer has a single winding on an iron core and a part of
24-hour period is known as all-day efficiency i.e., winding is common to both the primary and secondary circuits.
𝑘𝑊ℎ 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑖𝑛 24 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠
𝜂 =
𝑘𝑊ℎ 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑖𝑛 24 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠
• In the design of such transformers, efforts should be made to reduce

the iron losses which continuously occur during the whole day.
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09-05-2021
Auto Transformer Theory of Autotransformer

• Primary and secondary windings are connected electrically as well as • The equivalent circuit of the autotransformer.
• From this equivalent circuit, we have,
magnetically.
V −V N −N
=
• Therefore, power from the primary is transferred to the secondary V N
conductively as well as inductively (transformer action). N −N V = V −V N
VN − VN = VN − VN
• The voltage transformation ratio K of an ideal autotransformer is, VN = VN
𝐸 𝑁 𝑉 𝐼 N V
= = = =𝐾 = =K
𝐸 𝑁 𝑉 𝐼 N V
Theory of Autotransformer Advantages of Autotransformers

• Winding 1-3 - N1 turns - pri winding
• An autotransformer requires less Cu than a two -winding transformer
• winding 2-3 - N2 turns - sec winding of similar rating.
• Input current is I1 • Autotransformer operates at a higher efficiency than a two-winding
• Output current is I2 transformer of similar rating.

• An autotransformer has better voltage regulation than a two-winding
• Portion 1-2 of the wdg has N1 - N2 turns and voltage across this portion
transformer of the same rating.
of the winding is V1 - V2.
• An autotransformer has smaller size than a two-winding transformer
• The current through the common portion of the winding is I2 - I1. of the same rating.
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Advantages of Autotransformers Applications of Autotransformers
• An autotransformer requires smaller exciting current than a two- • Autotransformers are used to compensate for voltage drops in
winding transformer of the same rating. transmission and distribution lines. When used for this purpose, they
• These advantages decrease as the ratio of transformation increases. So are known as booster transformers.
an autotransformer has advantages only for low values of • Autotransformers are used for reducing the voltage supplied to a.c.
transformation ratio. motors during the starting period.
• Autotransformers are used for continuous variable supply.
Disadvantages of Autotransformers Parallel Operation of Transformers

• Two transformers are said to be connected in parallel when their
• There is a direct connection between the primary and secondary.
primary windings are connected to a common supply bus bar and
Therefore, the output is no longer isolated from the input.
secondary windings are connected to a common load.
• It is not safe for stepping down a high voltage to a low voltage.
• The short - circuit current is much larger than for the two-winding
transformer of the same rating.
• This reduces the effective resistance and reactance.
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Necessary for Parallel Operation of Transformers Conditions for satisfactory Parallel Operation
• For supplying a large load, it is uneconomical to have a single large • The voltage ratings and voltage ratios of the transformers should be
transformer. identical.
• There is a scope for future expansion of a substation to supply a load
beyond the capacity of the transformer installed.
• Uninterruptible supply is possible even if one of the transformer fails
or if it is taken out for maintenance.
Conditions for satisfactory Parallel Operation Conditions for satisfactory Parallel Operation
• Transformers should be properly connected with regard to their • The impedances of the transformers should be equal.
polarities. • If this condition is not met, the transformers will not share the load
according to their kVA ratings.
• It can be corrected by inserting proper amount of resistance
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09-05-2021
Conditions for satisfactory Parallel Operation Three Phase Transformers
• The reactance/resistance ratios of the transformers should be the same

in order to avoid circulating currents.
• The power factor of the load supplied by the transformers will not be
equal.
• One transformer will be operating with a higher and the other with a
lower power factor than that of the load.
Three Phase Transformers Three Phase Transformer Connections

• Large scale generation of electric power is usually 3 phase at 13.2 kV • Star / Star (Y – Y)
or higher.
• Delta / Delta (Δ – Δ)
• But transmission voltage is 110 kV, 132 kV and 400 kV.
• Generated voltage needs to be increased. • Star / Delta(Y – Δ)
• Hence 3 phase transformers are used. • Delta / Star (V – Y)
• 3 single phase transformers can be used to construct a 3 phase
transformer.
• But it occupies more space and 15% more costlier than using a single
unit.
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09-05-2021
Star / Star (Y/Y) Connection Star / Delta (Y/Δ) Connection

• It is also called zero degree connection. • On primary side,
𝑉 𝑉
𝑉 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼 =𝐼
𝑉 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼 =𝐼 3
3 • On secondary side,
• Hence number of turns / phase and the
𝐼
amount of insulation required is minimum. 𝑉 =𝑉 and 𝐼 =
3
• This connection is economical for small
𝑉 𝑉
rating high voltage transformers. 𝑉
=
𝑉
=𝐾
• It works well for balanced load. 3

𝑉 1
= 𝐾
𝑉 3
Delta / Delta (Δ/Δ) Connection Delta / Star (Δ /Y) Connection

• It is also called zero degree connection. • On primary side,
𝐼 𝐼
𝑉 =𝑉 and 𝐼 = 𝑉 =𝑉 and 𝐼 =
3 3
• Hence number of turns / phase required is • On secondary side,
more. 𝑉
𝑉 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼 =𝐼
• This connection is economical for large rating 3
low voltage transformers. 𝑉

𝑉 3
• This connection is satisfactory for both = =𝐾
𝑉 𝑉
balanced and unbalanced loads.
𝑉
• But neutral unavailable. = 3𝐾
𝑉
18

ECEG 4123 Electrical Machines: Transformer

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ECEG 4123 Electrical Machines: Transformer

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09-05-2021

Chapter 2: Transformer winding.

• Load is connected to the other winding called the secondary winding.

Presented by Dr.M.Karthikeyan, AP/ECE, WSU 1 Presented by Dr.M.Karthikeyan, AP/ECE, WSU 3

What is a Transformer? Principle of operation

• A transformer is a static electrical machine which transfers electrical It is based on principle

Presented by Dr.M.Karthikeyan, AP/ECE, WSU 2 Presented by Dr.M.Karthikeyan, AP/ECE, WSU 4

Transformer Magnetic Core

Presented by Dr.M.Karthikeyan, AP/ECE, WSU 5 Presented by Dr.M.Karthikeyan, AP/ECE, WSU 7

Constructional details Magnetic Core

Core type construction Windings

• Transformer windings are made of solid or stranded copper or

Presented by Dr.M.Karthikeyan, AP/ECE, WSU 9 Presented by Dr.M.Karthikeyan, AP/ECE, WSU 11

Shell type construction Conservator and Explosion Vent

• Explosion Vent is used to discharge

• In case of slow developing faults, it sounds an alarm to alert the

• If serious fault occur in the transformer, it disconnects the transformer

Presented by Dr.M.Karthikeyan, AP/ECE, WSU 13 Presented by Dr.M.Karthikeyan, AP/ECE, WSU 15

Bushings Losses in a Transformer

Presented by Dr.M.Karthikeyan, AP/ECE, WSU 14 Presented by Dr.M.Karthikeyan, AP/ECE, WSU 16

Core or Iron losses (Pi)

constant. and frequency Occurs in the winding resistances

Copper losses (PC)

Presented by Dr.M.Karthikeyan, AP/ECE, WSU 18 Presented by Dr.M.Karthikeyan, AP/ECE, WSU 20

Shifting Impedances Simplified Equivalent Circuit of a Transformer

• When transferring resistance or reactance from primary to secondary,

• When transferring resistance or reactance from secondary to primary,

Equivalent Circuit of a Transformer Equivalent Circuit Referred to Primary Side

Presented by Dr.M.Karthikeyan, AP/ECE, WSU 22 Presented by Dr.M.Karthikeyan, AP/ECE, WSU 24

Presented by Dr.M.Karthikeyan, AP/ECE, WSU 25 Presented by Dr.M.Karthikeyan, AP/ECE, WSU 27

Equivalent Circuit Referred to Secondary Side Testing of Transformers

Presented by Dr.M.Karthikeyan, AP/ECE, WSU 26 Presented by Dr.M.Karthikeyan, AP/ECE, WSU 28

Open Circuit Test Short Circuit Test

Presented by Dr.M.Karthikeyan, AP/ECE, WSU 29 Presented by Dr.M.Karthikeyan, AP/ECE, WSU 31

Open Circuit Test Short Circuit Test

Efficiency Condition for Maximum Efficiency

Efficiency Condition for Maximum Efficiency

• i.e, Iron loss = Copper loss

Condition for Maximum Efficiency Output kVA Corresponding to Maximum Efficiency

• From above equation, the load current I2 corresponding to maximum P

Presented by Dr.M.Karthikeyan, AP/ECE, WSU 37 Presented by Dr.M.Karthikeyan, AP/ECE, WSU 39

Output kVA Corresponding to Maximum Efficiency Voltage Regulation

• For maximum efficiency, Pi = X2 PC expressed as a percentage of full load voltage.

Presented by Dr.M.Karthikeyan, AP/ECE, WSU 38 Presented by Dr.M.Karthikeyan, AP/ECE, WSU 40

Voltage Regulation at Different Power factors

From OC Test From SC Test

Equivalent Circuit Referred to Primary Side • Load kVA corresponding to 5 kW is,

Equivalent Circuit Referred to Secondary Side All Day Efficiency

Presented by Dr.M.Karthikeyan, AP/ECE, WSU 46 Presented by Dr.M.Karthikeyan, AP/ECE, WSU 48

All Day Efficiency All Day Efficiency

• This is known as all-day or energy efficiency.

Presented by Dr.M.Karthikeyan, AP/ECE, WSU 49 Presented by Dr.M.Karthikeyan, AP/ECE, WSU 51

All Day Efficiency Auto Transformer

• In the design of such transformers, efforts should be made to reduce

Presented by Dr.M.Karthikeyan, AP/ECE, WSU 50 Presented by Dr.M.Karthikeyan, AP/ECE, WSU 52

Auto Transformer Theory of Autotransformer

Theory of Autotransformer Advantages of Autotransformers

• Output current is I2 transformer of similar rating.

Advantages of Autotransformers Applications of Autotransformers

Presented by Dr.M.Karthikeyan, AP/ECE, WSU 57 Presented by Dr.M.Karthikeyan, AP/ECE, WSU 59

Disadvantages of Autotransformers Parallel Operation of Transformers

Presented by Dr.M.Karthikeyan, AP/ECE, WSU 58 Presented by Dr.M.Karthikeyan, AP/ECE, WSU 60

Presented by Dr.M.Karthikeyan, AP/ECE, WSU 61 Presented by Dr.M.Karthikeyan, AP/ECE, WSU 63