Density of states (DOS )

The DOS of a system describes the number of states per interval

of energy at each energy level that are available to be occupied by
electrons.

• Suppose an electron is known to occupy a particular Eigen

state up to a certain moment in time. The probability of
occupation may be changed at some later time by changing
the potential seen by the electron.
• This change in potential causes the electron to occupy other
eigenstates, which, in general, have different energy
eigenvalues. One might expect the number of distinct states
available in a given energy range to have an influence on the
probability of the electron changing its state.
• This is one reason why we are interested in the number of
electron states per unit energy interval – DOS.
Applying periodic boundary conditions to the wave function
DOS for 3 dimension
Consider a particle free to move in space. The particle is
described by a wave function
ψ(r, t) = eik·re−iωt
and a nonlinear dispersion relation ω = ђk2/2m

The energy of the particle : E = ђ2k2/2m

Consider a large volume of space defined by a cube of side L

along the Cartesian coordinates x, y, and z so that volume

V =Lx Ly Lz = L3
DOS multiply by the probability of occupation will give you carrier
density and integrated over the band will give you carrier concentration.
DOS in 2D
Density of states for a particle of mass 𝑚 confined to a two-
dimensional square potential well with infinite energy barriers can
be found as follows
Two-dimensional density of k states

Hence,

DOS in 1D

Hence,

DOS in 0D
𝐷0 𝐸 ~ 𝛿(𝐸)
  Bulk materials – 3D density of states
 Quantum wells – 2 D electronic density of state
 Quantum wires – 1 D electronic density of state
 Quantum dots – 0 D electronic density of state

Quantum wells, wires, and dots formed in semiconductor structures do

not have potentials with infinite barrier energies. However, there are still
bound states that exist in potential minima formed by potentials with
finite barrier energy.
Table 1. A comparison between the degree of confinement, degree
of freedom and DOS for different dimensionalities of materials.

Structure Degree of Degree of 𝒅𝑵/𝒅𝑬

Confinement freedom
Bulk Material 0D 3 𝐸
(Three dimensional material)
Quantum Well 1D 2 1
(Two dimensional material)
Quantum Wire 2D 1 1/ 𝐸
(One dimensional material)
Quantum Dot 3D 0 d(E)
(Zero dimensional material)

Tradition has determined that reduced-dimensionality structures are labelled

by the remaining degrees of freedom in the particle motion, rather than by the
number of directions with confinement.
 Density of states (DOS) Fermi distribution Carrier density

[DOS, Fermi distribution, carrier density] versus [Energy] for solids having 3D bulk ma
 What are Low-Dimensional Structures?

 When one or more of the dimensions of a solid are reduced

sufficiently, its physicochemical characteristics notably depart
from those of the bulk solid.

 With reduction in size, novel electrical, mechanical, chemical,

magnetic, and optical properties can be introduced. The resulting
structure is then called a low-dimensional structure (or system).

 The confinement of particles, usually electrons or holes, to a low-

dimensional structure leads to a dramatic change in their
behaviour and to the manifestation of size effects that usually fall
into the category of quantum-size effects.
 The low dimensional materials exhibit new physicochemical
properties not shown by the corresponding large-scale
structures of the same composition.

 Nanostructures constitute a bridge between molecules and

bulk materials. Suitable control of the properties and
responses of nanostructures can lead to new devices and
technologies.

 The quantum effects of confinement become significant

when at least one of the dimensions of a structure is
comparable in length to the de-Broglie wavelength. If at least
one dimension of a solid is comparable to the de Broglie
wavelength of the particle, a quantum-mechanical treatment
of particle motion becomes necessary.
 Classification of Low-dimensional Materials
Low-dimensional structures are usually classified according to the
number of reduced dimensions they have. More precisely, the
dimensionality refers to the number of degrees of freedom in the
particle momentum. Depending on the dimensionality, the following
classification is made:
 Three-dimensional (3D) structure or bulk structure: No quantization
of the particle motion occurs, i.e., the particle is free.
 Two-dimensional (2D) structure or quantum well: Quantization of
the particle motion occurs in one direction, while the particle is free
to move in the other two directions.
 One-dimensional (1D) structure or quantum wire: Quantization
occurs in two directions, leading to free movement along only one
direction.
 Zero-dimensional (0D) structure or quantum dot (sometimes called
“quantum box”): Quantization occurs in all three directions.
Quantum Confinement in Nanostructures: Overview
Electrons Confined in 1 Direction:
Quantum Wells (thin films):
ky
 Electrons can easily move in
kx
2 Dimensions!
nz
1 Dimensional
Quantization!
Electrons Confined in 2 Directions: ny
Quantum Wires: kx
 Electrons can easily move in
1 Dimension! 2 Dimensional nz
Quantization!

Electrons Confined in 3 Directions: nz

Quantum Dots: 3 Dimensional
 Electrons can easily move in nx Quantization!
ny
0 Dimensions!
Each further confinement direction changes a continuous k component
to a discrete component characterized by a quantum number n.