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nz 1 Dimensional
Electrons Confined in 2 Directions: Quantization!
Quantum Wires: ny
Electrons can easily move in kx
1 Dimension!
2 Dimensional nz
Quantization!
Electrons Confined in 3 Directions:
Quantum Dots: nz
3 Dimensional
Electrons can easily move in
n x Quantization!
ny 0
Dimensions!
Each further confinement direction changes a continuous k component
to a discrete component characterized by a quantum number n.
• PHYSICS: Back to the bandstructure chapter:
– Consider the 1st Brillouin Zone for the infinite crystal. The maximum
wavevectors are of the order
km (/a)
a = lattice constant. The potential V is periodic with period a. In the almost free e- approximation,
the bands are free e- like except near the Brillouin Zone edge. That is, they are of the form:
E (k)2/(2mo)
So, the energy at the Brillouin Zone edge has the form:
Em (km)2/(2mo)
or
Em ()2/(2moa2)
PHYSICS
• SUPERLATTICES Alternating layers of material. Periodic, with
periodicity L (layer thickness). Let kz = wavevector perpendicular to the layers.
• In a superlattice, the potential V has a new periodicity in the z direction with
periodicity L >> a
In the z direction, the Brillouin Zone is much smaller than that for an infinite
crystal. The maximum wavevectors are of the order: ks (/L)
At the BZ edge in the z direction, the energy has the form:
Es ()2/(2moL2) + E2(k)
E2(k) = the 2 dimensional energy for k in the x,y plane.
Note that: ()2/(2moL2) << ()2/(2moa2)
Primary Qualitative Effects of Quantum Confinement
• Consider electrons confined along 1 direction (say, z) to a layer of width
L:
Energies
• The energy bands are quantized (instead of continuous) in kz &
shifted upward. So kz is quantized:
kz = kn = [(n)/L], n = 1, 2, 3
• So, in the effective mass approximation (m*), the bottom of the
conduction band is quantized (like a particle in a 1 d box) & shifted:
En = (n)2/(2m*L2)
• Energies are quantized! Also, the wavefunctions are 2
dimensional Bloch functions (traveling waves) for k in the x,y
plane & standing waves in the z direction.
Quantum Confinement Terminology
Quantum Well QW
= A single layer of material A (layer thickness L), sandwiched between 2 macroscopically large
layers of material B. Usually, the bandgaps satisfy:
EgA < EgB
Multiple Quantum Well MQW
= Alternating layers of materials A (thickness L) & B (thickness L). In this case:
L >> L
So, the e- & e+ in one A layer are independent of those in other A layers.
Superlattice SL
= Alternating layers of materials A & B with similar layer thicknesses.
Brief Elementary Quantum Mechanics &
Solid State Physics Review
• Quantum Mechanics of a Free Electron:
– The energies are continuous: E = (k)2/(2mo) (1d, 2d, or 3d)
– The wavefunctions are traveling waves:
ψk(x) = A eikx (1d) ψk(r) = A eikr (2d or 3d)
• Solid State Physics: Quantum Mechanics of an Electron in a Periodic
Potential in an infinite crystal :
– The energy bands are (approximately) continuous: E= Enk
– At the bottom of the conduction band or the top of the valence band, in the effective
mass approximation, the bands can be written:
Enk (k)2/(2m*)
– The wavefunctions are Bloch Functions = traveling waves:
Ψnk(r) = eikr unk(r); unk(r) = unk(r+R)
Some Basic Physics
• Density of states (DoS)
dN dN dk
DoS
dE dk dE
in 3D:
k space vol
N (k )
vol per state
4 3 k 3
(2 )3 V
Structure Degree of dN
Confinement dE
Bulk Material 0D E
Quantum Well 1D 1
Quantum Wire 2D 1/ E
Quantum Dot 3D (E)
QM Review: The 1d (infinite) Potential Well
(“particle in a box”) In all QM texts!!
• We want to solve the Schrödinger Equation for:
x < 0, V ; 0 < x < L, V = 0; x > L, V
-[2/(2mo)](d2 ψ/dx2) = Eψ
• Boundary Conditions:
ψ = 0 at x = 0 & x = L (V there)
• Energies:
En = (n)2/(2moL2), n = 1,2,3
Wavefunctions:
ψn(x) = (2/L)½sin(nx/L) (a standing wave!)
Qualitative Effects of Quantum Confinement:
Energies are quantized & ψ changes from a traveling
wave to a standing wave.
In 3Dimensions…
• For the 3D infinite potential well:
( x, y, z ) ~ sin( nLxx ) sin( mLyy ) sin( qLzz ), n, m, q integer
q2h2
Energy levels n2h2
m2h2
8 mL 2
R
8 mLx 2 8 mLy 2
Real Quantum Structures aren’t this simple!!
z
We want bound
states: ε < Vo
[-{ħ2/(2mo)}(d2/dx2) + V]ψ = εψ (ε E)
V = 0, -(b/2) < x < (b/2); V = Vo otherwise
Solve the Schrödinger Equation:
[-{ħ2/(2mo)}(d2/dx2) + V]ψ = εψ
-(½)b (½)b
(ε E) V = 0, -(b/2) < x < (b/2)
V = Vo otherwise
Bound states are in Region II
Vo
Region II: V= 0
ψ(x) is oscillatory
b
• Odd eigenfunction solutions:
Circle, ξ2 + η2 = ρ2, crosses η = -ξ cot(ξ)
Vo b o
b
|E2| < |E1|
Quantum Confinement in Nanostructures
Confined in:
nz
nz
Electron
Scattering
EVacuum
Inverse
Photoemission
EFermi
Photoemission
0 /d k /a d
= zone
boundary
Lect. 7b,
Slide 11
1 layer =
graphene
2 layers
EVacuum
EFermi 3 layers
Photoemission
0 /d k /a
4 layers
layers
N atomic layers with spacing a = d/n : = graphite
N quantized states with kn ≈ N /d
Quantum Well States
in Thin Films
becoming
continuous
for N
discrete
for small N
Paggel et al.
Science 283, 1709 (1999)
n
Counting Quantum Well States
4 3
(0a)12345
Q
u
an
tu
m
W
elS
taesfo
rA
g
/F
e(10)
(eV)
hAg/Fe(100) (N, n')
N (2, 1) Periodic Fermi level crossing of
13
15 (3, 1) quantum well states with
(7, 2)
11.5
14
0.3
(12, 3)
increasing thickness
6
14 13 (13, 3)
13 2
1
12
7
14 11
8
16
2(b
9 0.2
its)
V)
13
th(e
.un
8
rb
id
)
eW
sity(a
16
in
7
L
ten
16 1
issionIn
16 6
4.
toem
5
Pho
14
4
16 0.1
3
16
2
Number of monolayers N
10
1
tion (eV)
Fabry-Perot interferometer model: Interfaces act like mirrors for electrons. Since
electrons have so short wavelengths, the interfaces need to be atomically precise.
n
6
5
4
3
2
1
Energy EFermi
-2
0.7 0.9 1.1
k|| along [011] [Å-1 ]
-4
-6
States near the Fermi level cause
the energy splitting between
-8
majority and minority spin bands
-10
in a ferromagnet (red and green).
K X
Quantum Well States and Magnetic Coupling
The magnetic coupling between layers plays a key role in giant magnetoresistance
(GMR), the Nobel prize winning technology used for reading heads of hard disks.
This coupling oscillates in sync with the density of states at the Fermi level.
(Qiu, et al.
PR B ‘92)
Spin-Polarized Quantum Well States
Magnetic interfaces reflect the two spins differently, causing a spin polarization.
Filtering mechanisms
• Interface: Spin-dependent Reflectivity Quantum Well States
• Bulk: Spin-dependent Mean Free Path Magnetic “Doping”
Magnetoelectronics
Spin currents instead of charge currents
Magnetoresistance = Change of
the resistance in a magnetic field
Summer 2003
Y. Tzeng
ECE
Auburn University
Quantum confinement
Trap particles and restrict their motion
Quantum confinement produces new material
behavior/phenomena
“Engineer confinement”- control for specific
applications
Structures
Quantum dots (0-D) only
confined states, and no freely
moving ones
Nanowires (1-D) particles travel
only along the wire
Quantum wells (2-D) confines
particles within a thin layer
http://www.me.berkeley.edu/nti/englander1.ppt
http://phys.educ.ksu.edu/vqm/index.html (Scientific American)
Figure 11: Energy-band profile of a structure containing three quantum
wells, showing the confined states in each well. The structure consists of
GaAs wells of thickness 11, 8, and 5 nm in Al0.4 Ga0.6 As barrier layers.
The gaps in the lines indicating the confined state energies show the
locations of nodes of the corresponding wavefunctions.
Crystal Diameter
2.8 3.4 4.0 4.7 5.6
Evident Nanocrystals
Evident's nanocrystals can be separated from the
solvent to form self-assembled thin films or
combined with polymers and cast into films for use
in solid-state device applications. Evident's
semiconductor nanocrystals can be coupled to
secondary molecules including proteins or nucleic
acids for biological assays or other applications.
http://www.evidenttech.com/why_nano/docs.php
http://www.evidenttech.com/index.php
EviArray
Capitalizing on the distinctive properties of
EviDots™, we have devised a unique and
patented microarray assembly. The
EviArray™ is fabricated with nanocrystal
tagged oligonucleotide
probes that are also
attached to a fixed
substrate in such a
way that the
nanocrystals can
only fluoresce when
the DNA probe
couples with the
corresponding target
genetic sequence.
http://www.evidenttech.com/why_nano/docs.php
EviDots - Semiconductor nanocrystals
EviFluors- Biologically functionalized EviDots
EviProbes- Oligonucleotides with EviDots
EviArrays- EviProbe-based assay system
http://www.me.berkeley.edu/nti/englander1.ppt
Nanowire fabrication
Challenging!
Template assistance
Electrochemical deposition
Ensures fabrication of electrically continuous wires
since only takes place on conductive surfaces
Applicable to a wide range of materials
High pressure injection
Limited to elements and heterogeneously-melting
compounds with low melting points
Does not ensure continuous wires
Does not work well for diameters < 30-40 nm
CVD
Laser assisted techniques
http://www.me.berkeley.edu/nti/englander1.ppt
Magnetic nanowires
Important for storage device applications
Cobalt, gold, copper and cobalt-copper
nanowire arrays have been fabricated
Electrochemical deposition is prevalent
fabrication technique
<20 nm diameter nanowire arrays have been
fabricated
http://www.me.berkeley.edu/nti/englander1.ppt
Silicon nanowire CVD growth techniques
With Fe/SiO2 gel template (Liu et al,
2001)
Mixture of 10 sccm SiH4 & 100 sccm
helium, 5000C, 360 Torr and deposition
time of 2h
Straight wires w/ diameter ~ 20nm and
length ~ 1m
With Au-Pd islands (Liu et al, 2001)
Mixture of 10 sccm SiH4 & 100 sccm
helium, 8000C, 150 Torr and deposition
time of 1h
Amorphous Si nanowires
Decreasing catalyst size seems to
improve nanowire alignment
Bifurcation is common
30-40 nm diameter and length ~ 2m
http://www.me.berkeley.edu/nti/englander1.ppt
Template assisted nanowire growth
alumina template
Si substrate
http://www.me.berkeley.edu/nti/englander1.ppt
100nm
(M. Sander)
Electrochemical deposition
Works well with thermoelectric materials and
metals
Process allows to remove/dissolve oxide barrier
layer so that pores are in contact with substrate
Filling rates of up to 90% have been achieved
Bi2Te3 nanowire
unfilled pore
alumina template http://www.me.berkeley.edu/nti/englander1.ppt
(T. Sands/ HEMI group http://www.mse.berkeley.edu/groups/Sands/HEMI/nanoTE.htm
Template-assisted, Au nucleated Si nanowires
Gold evaporated (Au nanodots) into thin
~200nm alumina template on silicon substrate
Ideally reaction with silane will yield desired
results
Need to identify equipment that will support this
process – contamination, temp and press issues
Additional concerns include Au thickness, Au on
alumina surface, template intact vs removed
Au dots
Au
100nm
1µm
http://www.me.berkeley.edu/nti/englander1.ppt
(M. Sander) template (top)
Nanometer gap between metallic electrodes
Before breaking
http://research.chem.psu.edu/mallouk/articles/b203047k.pdf
Resistivity of ErSi2 Nanowires on Silicon
http://physics.arizona.edu/~stafford/costa-kraemer.pdf