PRINCIPLES OF CHEMISTRY

a) States of matter

SolidLiquid -Melting – Particles gain kinetic energy and vibrate faster. This allows the
particles to overcome the forces of attraction that hold the m together in a regular pattern, in
the solid. The particles can now slide over each other.
LiquidGas-Evaporating – The particles gain kinetic energy and move further apart. Eventually
the forces of attraction between the particles are completely broken and they are able to
escape from the liquid.
SolidGas- Sublimation – The particles gain energy and vibrate faster. Eventually the forces of
attraction are broken, and they are able to escape from the solid.
LiquidSolid-Freezing – The particles lose kinetic energy, and this allows the forces of
attraction between the particles to hold them together. The particles arrange themselves in a
regular pattern and are no longer able to slide past each other
GasLiquid- Condensing – The particles lose kinetic energy, and this allows the forces of
attraction to bring the particles closer together. They eventually clump together to form a
liquid.
Evaporation: Just the surface particles have enough to form a liquid state to gaseous
Boiling: all the particles have enough energy to go to the gaseous state
PURE substances have fixed melting and boiling point. E.g. water melts at 0’C, boils at 100’C
IMPURE substances have a range of boiling temperature. E.g. 99’-109’C-Tap water. This is the
only way to show purity.
AMMONIA CHLORIDE EXPERIMENT
The process of diffusion occurs, HCL particles are heavier so they travel slower, meaning that
the ring will form closer to HCL as ammonia will travel faster.
SOLUBILITY
Mass of evaporating basin: 77.06g
Mass of evaporating basin and the salt solution: 102.6g
Mass of evaporating basin and sodium chloride:83.84g
Mass of water: 18.76g
Mass of Salt: 6.78g
Solubility of sodium chloride: (6.78/18.76) x 100 = 36.1g/100g of water
Solvent- the liquid that the solute dissolves
Solute- the substances that dissolves in solvent
Solution- the mixture formed when solute dissolves in a solvent.
Saturated Solution- a solution that contains as much dissolved solid as possible at a particular
temperature
ELEMENT- a substance that cannot be spilt into anything smaller by chemical means. Contains
atoms of the same atomic number.
COMPOUND-a substance that forms from two or more elements chemically combine, cannot
be separated by chemical means
MIXTURE- two or more substances not chemically combined that an be separated by physical
means
MIXTURES HAVE A RANGE OF BOILING or
MELTING POINT LIKE PURE SUBSTANCES WHO
HAVE THEM FIXED. MIXTURES ARE IMPURE
SIMPLE DISTILLATION- separate components of a
solution (solvent and solute) separate substances
with different boiling points
FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION- separate mixture of
liquids, separating by using different boiling points.
FILTRATION-separate a solid from a liquid. Substance left in the filter is the RESIDUE and liquid
that comes through is called FILTRATE. can separate two
solids if one is soluble.
CRYSTALISATION-solid from a solution, solution is heated in
the evaporating basin to boil off the liquid leaving a
saturated solution which then any more evaporation will
result in the solute falling out of a solution, forming
crystals.
PAPER CHROMOTOGRAPHY-separate variety of mixtures,
separate dyes from ink.
Carried out by drawing a pencil(insoluble) line and adding
spots of different ink. The solvent is below the base line.
Move up at different rates.
Calculate Rf value. By diving the distance moved by the ink and baseline of the solvent front.
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
ATOM-a smallest piece of an element that still can be recognized as that element
MOLECULE-two or more atoms covalently bonded together. Contain a certain fixed number of
atoms.
ATOMIC NUMBER-the number of protons in an atom
MASS NUMBER-number of protons and neutrons in an atom
ISOTOPES-the same number of protons and different number of neutrons
RELATIVE ATOMIC MASS-the weighted average mass of the isotopes of the element, the
average mass of an atom

Particle Relative Mass Relative Charge

Proton 1 +1

Neutron 1 0

Electron 1/1836 -1
THE PERIODIC TABLE

The elements are arranged in the order of

atomic number (the number of protons in
the nuclei of the atoms)
Vertical columns are called groups which is
the number of the electrons in the outer
shell. Horizontal rows are called periods
which is the number of energy levels.
KNOW HOW TO DEDUCE THE ELCTRONIC
CONFIGURATION FROM THEIR POSITION
Groups in the periodic table have the same
chemical properties.

 all the elements in group 1 react vigorously with water to from hydrogen and
hydroxides with similar formulae: LiOH (lithium hydroxide)
 all the elements in group 7 react with hydrogen to form compounds with similar
formulae; HF (hydrogen fluoride)
 all the elements in group 2 form chlorides with similar formulae: MgCl 2
the reactions of atoms depends on how many electrons there are in the outer shell. That’s why
noble gases are unreactive as the outer shell is full, therefore there is no tendency to lose, gain
or share electrons in a chemical reaction.
METALS AND NON-METALS- electrical conductivity and acid base character of the oxides
Metals conduct electricity and non-metals do not generally conduct electricity. -due to the
presence of delocalized electrons that are free to move)
Non metals do not conduct electricity-no electrons are free to move or mobile ions
Metals generally form basic oxides-is one which reacts with acids to form salts.
Non metals generally form acidic oxides. Acidic oxides react with bases/alkalis to form salts.
INVESTIGATING THE FORMULA OF A METAL OXIDE BY COMBUSTION
Magnesium burns with a bright white flame. Magnesium oxide (white powder) is produced in
the reaction.
Lid is placed to prevent the white powder escaping but lid needs to be lifted every few seconds
to allow oxygen into crucible to react with magnesium
The reason the mass increases is because magnesium combines with the oxygen in the air.
IONIC BONDING
Metals react with non-metals; metal atom loses electrons to form positive ion while non-metals
gains these electrons to form a negative ion. The oppositely charged ions are strongly attracted
by the electrostatic attraction.
Giant ionic lattices- regular arrangement of particles. Each ion is surrounded by ion of opposite
charge there are strong ionic bonds within each lattice.
Why is sodium ion smaller than chlorine? Only has two energy shells
Have high melting and boiling points because of the strong electrostatic forces of attraction
holding them together. A lot of energy will be needed to break the strong electrostatic force
between the oppositely charged particles.
Tend to be brittle- due to any small distortion of a crystal will bring ions with the same charge
alongside each other. Like charges repel so the crystal splits itself.
Cannot conduct electricity when solid as the ions are in a fixed position and are not free to
move. However, conduct when molten or dissolved in water so ions are free to move around.
COVALENT BONDING
Electrostatic attraction between the nuclei of atoms and the shared pair of electrons. When
two particles share a pair of electrons, each covalent bond provides one extra shared electron
for each atom.
The forces of attraction between simple molecules are WEAK-because they have weak
intermolecular forces between the molecules, these substances tend to be gases or liquids or
solids with low melting point and boiling point as not much energy is required to break the
weak intermolecular forces of attraction.
The boiling point increase down the group meaning we have to put more energy to break the
intermolecular forces as the relatives molecular mass increases. Meaning MP and BP increase
as Mr increases.
DO NOT CONDUCT ELECTRICITY- don’t have overall electric charge and electrons are tightly
held in the atoms so they cannot move freely
INSOLUBLE IN WATER
GIANT COVALENT- bonded to each other by strong covalent bonds, lots of these bonds-takes a
lot of energy to break – have high melting and boiling point.
Don’t conduct electricity and insoluble in water
DIAMOND

 four covalent bonds

 strong covalent bonds take lots of energy to break-high MP
 covalent bonds hold the atom in rigid lattice structure-really hard
 no conductivity as there are no mobile electrons or ions
GRAPHITE

 3 covalent bonds
 Layer held weakly by intermolecular forces so are free to slide over each other- soft and
slippery
 High melting point- need loads of energy to break the bonds
 Has ONE delocalized electron- conducts electricity
C60 Fullerene is a simple molecular substance

 Isn’t a covalent structure, made up of large covalent molecules

 Held by intermolecular force so they can slide-soft material and low MP and BP- not
much energy is needed to break
 Has 1 delocalized electron but poor conductor of electricity as electrons can’t move
between molecules
METALLIC BONDING
Metals have giant structure of positive ions
surrounded by a sea of delocalized
electrons.
The electrostatic attraction between nuclei
of the positive ions and the electrons is
called metallic bonding.
Good conductors of electricity and heat-
delocalized electrons are able to move through the structure meaning they can conduct
electricity. Movement of electrons means energy can be transferred quickly through the
material, so metal are good conductors of heat.
Most metals are malleable- the layers of ions in metals can slide over each other making
metals malleable
ALKALI METALS- lithium, sodium and potassium
2 reasons for putting them in group 1:

 They all have one electron in their outer shell

 They have similar chemical properties:
  They all react with water in the same way to form a hydroxide
The chemical properties depend on the number of electrons in the outers shell
REACTION WITH WATER
Sodium- 2 Na(s) +2H2O(l)2NaOH(aq)+H2
Burns Yellow flame
Sodium floats-less dense than water
Fizzing as hydrogen gas produced
The metal hydroxide is alkaline
Lithium- 2 Li(s) +2H2O(l)2LiOH(aq)+H2
Burns red Flame
Similar to sodium but slower, lithium melting point is higher, and the heat isn’t produced so
quickly so lithium doesn’t melt.
Potassium-2 K(s) +2H2O(l)2KOH(aq)+H2
Potassium is faster than sodium. Enough heat is produced to ignite the hydrogen, burns with
lilac flame. Reaction ends with potassium spitting and exploding.
EXPLAINING THE INCREASE IN REACTIVITY
As you go down the group metals become more reactive-metal atoms are losing electrons and
forming metal ions
Move down the group, atoms have more shells of electrons and get bigger, as atoms get bigger,
the outer electron which is the one lost in the reaction is further from nucleus meaning that I is
less strongly attracted by the nucleus and therefore more easily lost
REACTIONS WITH AIR
When sodium is cut there is a fresh shiny surface that quickly tarnishes as its exposed to
oxygen. If we heat metal, we get a much vigorous reaction
Formulae= 2Na(s)+O22M2O(s)
THE HALOGENS
HAVE 7 ELCTRONS IN THEIR OUTER SHELL
Physical State at room temperature Color
F2 Gas Yellow
Cl2 Gas green
 Br2 Liquid Red-brown liquid, orange, brown vapor
I2 Solid Grey solid, purple vapor
The melting and boiling point increases down the group, are covalent molecular substances. As
the relative molecular mass increases, the intermolecular forces of attraction become stronger
therefore more energy must be put in to overcome these stronger forces of attraction. Easier to
attract an electron when the distance is small and there are fewer energy levels blocking the
positive influence of a nucleus.
Halogens react with hydrogen to form hydrogen halides- H2(g)+Br2(g)2HBr(g)
Hydrogen halides are acidic, poisonous gases. Soluble in water
Halogens react with alkali metal to form salts. 2Na(s)+Cl2(g)2NaCl(s)
DISPLACEMENT REACTION
A more reactive halogen will displace a less reactive halogen to form It’s salt
Cl2+2KBrBr2+2KCl
Chlorine has gained an electron this is called a reduction
Bromine has lost an electron this called oxidation
Chlorine is the oxidizing agent in this reaction because it has been reduced
When Oxidation and Reduction happen at the same time the reaction is called a REDOX
reaction
TREND IN REACTIVITY OF THE HALOGENS
Halogens form -1 ions. If it is in a shell closer to nucleus it is more strongly attracted to the
nucleus like in chlorine. But if atom is bigger like in Bromine so the electron is added to the shell
further away from nucleus where it is not as strongly attracted
Organic Chemistry
Hydrocarbon- molecules that contain carbon and hydrogen only.
Homologous series- a series of compounds with similar chemical properties because they have
the same functional group. Differs from the next by one -CH2-, same general formula. Trends in
physical properties.
Functional group- a group of atoms responsible
for the chemical reactions of a compound.
Isomerism- molecules with the same molecular
formula but different structural formulae.
REACTIONS OF ORAGNIC COMPOUNDS-
COMBUSTION- involves a reaction of a fuel with
oxygen. products are water and carbon dioxide if
combustion is complete.
ADDITION-involves ONE product. 2 reactants 1 product. Something is added to the molecule
without taking anything away.
SUBSTITUTION-involves 2 products. 2 reactants2 products. An atom or group of atoms is
replaced by a different atom or a group of atoms.
CRUDE OIL
Crude oil is a mixture of hydrocarbons. It’s a finite resource nonrenewable.
As the molecule becomes bigger…

 Boiling point increases as larger molecule are attracted to each other more strongly.
More energy needed to break the intermolecular forces of attraction.

 Liquids become less volatile meaning more slowly evaporates at room temperature.
Again, due to the stronger intermolecular forces of attraction.

 The liquids become more viscous as they contain large molecules, they flow less easily
due to stronger forces of attraction.

 The liquids become darker in color.

 Do not burn as easily.

SEPARATING CRUDE OIL
Separated into fraction using fractional distillation. The oil is heated in the fractionating column
and the oil evaporates and condenses at a number of different temperatures.
Fuel-a substance that releases heat and energy when burned.
Complete combustion- CO2 and H2O are produced.
Incomplete combustion-if there isn’t enough air some fuel doesn’t burn leading to the
formation of carbon monoxide which is poisonous-reduces the ability of blood to carry oxygen
around our body.
acidic rain is
formed when
water and
oxygen in the
atmosphere
react with
sulfur dioxide
to produce
sulfuric acid.
Corrodes
roads and
buildings-
limestone.
Also change
the ph in
lakes.
CRACKING
Process in which long chain alkanes are converted to alkenes and shorter chain alkanes, hence
more useful.
Catalytic cracking-passed over a catalyst -silica or alumina at about 600-700 degrees so thermal
decomposition can occur.
Demand for smaller chained alkanes is much greater than that for longer chained alkanes –
however, supply for longer chained alkanes is greater than that for smaller chained alkanes,
therefore an alternative to produce smaller chained alkanes is required.
ALKANES
General formula- CnH2n+2 . Classified as a saturated hydrocarbon-contain only C-C single bonds-
hence the tend to be quite inert.
 Physical properties-first 4 gases, all
other are liquids. molecule becomes bigger hence the intermolecular forces of attraction
become stronger-increase in boiling point.
COMBUSTION
SUBSTITUTION
React with halogens in the presence of UV light.
The mixture of methane and bromine gas is
orange but when exposed to sunlight it will lose
color.
ALKENES
General formula- CnH2n . known as unsaturated due to the C=C double bond.
Combustion- usually not use, as they are too useful to waste them by burning.
Addition- alkenes are much more reactive than alkanes due to the C=C. double bond breaks to
become a single bond.
Addition of bromine- the product is a colorless liquid. . Ethene + bromine -> 1,2-
dibromoethane.
To distinguish an alkanes from and alkene, use bromine water to turn orange to colorless.
Alkanes do NOT react with bromine water hence remaining orange.
Hydration-an alkane reacts with water to form and alcohol. Conditions-300 degrees, 60-70atm
and phosphoric acid as a catalyst.
ALCOHOLS

OXIDATION OF ETHANOL

 Burning in air or oxygen (combustion)

 Reaction with oxygen in the air to form ethanoic acid.

 Heating with Potassium dichromate(iv) in dilute sulfuric acid. From orange it will turn
green.
PRODUCTION OF ETHANOL
FERMENTATION
Yeast is added to sugar cane and left in temperature of 30 degrees. If too low-yeast inactive.
too high enzymes in yeast would be denatured. If air present will produce water instead of
ethanol. Purified by fractional distillation. Glucoseethanol+CO2
HYDRATION OF ETHANOL
Reacting with steam, phosphoric
acid as the catalyst at the
temperature of 300 degrees and
60-70 atm.
CARBOXYLIC ACIDS
Functional group-COOH
Weak acids with PH of about 3-5-
turn litmus paper blue.

Reactions with metal

Metal  +   Carboxylic Acid   →   Salt   +   Hydrogen
      Mg                  2CH3COOH                  Mg(CH3COO)2                             H2
Reactions with carbonates
Metal Carbonate   +   Carboxylic Acid   →   Salt   +   Water   +   Carbon Dioxide
          Na2CO3                2CH3COOH            2CH3COONa        H2O                  CO2

ESTERS
Organic compounds formed by the reaction of an alcohol and carboxylic acid. Functional group
-COO-

Uses of ester-volatile
compounds with
distinctive smell, used
as food colorings and in
perfumes.

SYNTHETIC POLYMERS
Alkenes can be used to make polymers
Polymer- a large molecule made when many small molecules (monomers) join together.
Consist of many repeat units.
Monomer- molecules which can join to from a polymer.
Addition polymerization-molecules simply add onto each other without anything else being
formed.
Polymerization- joining up lots of little molecules (monomers) to make one big
molecule(polymer).

Monomer is just a repeat unit so to deduce the structure and vice versa, you need to replace
the c-c bond with c=c and continuation bonds .
Disposal of addition polymers

 Contain strong covalent bonds making them inert at ordinary temperatures.

 Non-biodegradable- cannot be broken down by the bacteria in the environment.

 The production of toxic gases when burned- CO2- adds to global warming.
Condensation
polymerization- each time
two monomers combine, a
small molecule such as water
or hydrogen is lost. The
elimination of water gives the
name condensation.
Monomers- one of the
monomers is a DIOL-alcohol
molecule with one -OH at
each end. “di” shows there are two -OH groups present. Second monomer is dicarboxylic acid, a
carboxylic molecule with one -COOH at each end.
When you react a diol and a
dicarboxylic acid, the alcohol and
carboxylic acid functional groups
react, losing a small molecule –
water.
the dicarboxylic acid loses the OH group off of each COOH group, the di-alcohol loses the H off
of each OH group, the remaining molecules join together to make a polyester hence the H and
OH join to form water.
Biopolyester- biodegradable polyesters which break down much more quickly. Can be made
from lactic acid. Easier to be disposed of than other polyesters.