STEM 12

CHEMISTRY 2

QUARTER 3: MODULE 2
INTERMOLECULAR FORCES,
LIQUIDS AND SOLIDS (PART 2)

PHOEBE T. MARCHAN
INSTRUCTOR

Time Frame: One Week

Module 2
Learning outcomes:
At the end of the lesson, the students must be able to;
 understand the structure and properties of water
 differentiate electrical and thermal conductivity
 differentiate Crystalline and Amorphous solids
 identify the types of solids together with its properties

Discussion
STRUCTURES AND PROPERTIES OF WATER
Molecules of Water
A molecule is an aggregation of atomic nuclei and electrons that is sufficiently stable to possess observable
properties. In water, each hydrogen nucleus is bound to the central oxygen atom by a pair of electrons that are shared
between them; chemists call this shared electron pair a covalent chemical bond. The outer-shell electrons of oxygen are
used for this purpose, leaving four electrons which are organized into two non-bonding pairs.
The four electron pairs surrounding the oxygen tend to arrange themselves as far from each other as possible in
order to minimize repulsions between these clouds of negative charge. This would ordinarily result in a tetrahedral
geometry in which the angle between electron pairs (and therefore the H-O-H bond angle) is 109.5 o. However, because
the two non-bonding pairs remain closer to the oxygen atom, these exert a stronger repulsion against the two covalent
bonding pairs, effectively pushing the two hydrogen atoms closer together. The result is a distorted tetrahedral
arrangement in which the H-O-H angle is 104.5 o.
Although the water molecule carries no net electric charge, its eight electrons are not distributed uniformly;
there is slightly more negative charge at the oxygen end of the molecule, and a compensating positive charge at the
hydrogen end. The resulting polarity is largely responsible for water’s unique properties.

TYPES AND PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS

As describe in the previous section, crystalline solid can vary in their atomic compositions, bonding, and
structure. Together, these attributes determine how the different solids behave under different conditions. Solids have
many different properties, including conductivity, malleability, density, hardness, and optical transmission, to name a
few.

Electrical and Thermal Conductivity

As you read lesson on your computer, you are probably not thinking about the wires your computer uses to get
the electrical power it needs to run. Those wires are made of metals, probably copper, because metals generally have
good electrical conductivity. Electricity is a flow of electrons from one place to another, and in metallic bonds the outer
electrons are relatively free to move between adjacent atoms. This electron mobility means it is easy for an electrical
current to move from one end of a piece of wire by an electric current, this causes electrons to move from one to
another metal atom continuously down the wire, allowing the current to flow. In other solids, though, the electrons are
engaged in the covalent or ionic bonds and therefore are not able to conduct electricity, but some do it poorly. Materials
that do not conduct electricity are called electrical insulators.
Heat or thermal conductivity is closely related to electrical conductivity. Just as metal are good electrical
conductors, you probably know from experience that they are good at conducting heat too; i.e. that is why most kitchen
pots, pans, and baking sheets are metal, so they can absorb the heat from the stove or oven and pass it on to the food
that is being cooked. This is how it works, for a solid to conduct heat, the movement of one molecule or atom needs to
be easily transferrable to its neighbour. In a network solid, bonds are more rigid and the angles between the atoms are
well defined, thus transfer is more difficult. Solids that have low heat conductivity are known as heat insulators.

Malleability and Ductility

Two additional properties such as malleability and ductility, follow trends that are similar to electrical and
thermal conductivity. Malleability describes the ability to hammer a solid into a sheet without breaking it, and Ductility
refers to whether a solid can be stretched to form a wire. As you may have guessed, metals tend to be both malleable
and ductile, largely due to the non-directionality of metallic bonds. In contrast, covalent and ionic bonds, which are
directional and require specific geometries resulting in fixed three-dimensional lattice structures, make many other
types of solids brittle so they break under force.
Metallic malleability and ductility are a crucial reason that metals are so useful. Their electrical conductivity
would be much less useful if it weren’t possible to stretch them into wires then be bent and shaped at room
temperature for an incredible array of applications. They also create some drawbacks like jewelry can be crushed and
deformed inside a purse or a metal figurine can be dented if it is dropped. Manufacturers must consider all the
properties of the materials they plan to work with to find the best option for each application.

Melting Point
Another way to deform a solid is to melt it. A solid’s melting point depends on the strength of the interactions
between its components: stronger interactions mean a higher melting point. For molecular solids, melting means
breaking the weak intermolecular forces (the forces between different molecules), not the strong covalent bonds that
hold the individual molecules together, so a compound like sugar can be easily melted on your stovetop. For network
solids (held together by covalent bonds), ionic solids (held together by ionic bonds), and metallic solids (held together
by metallic bonds), though, the melting temperature depends on the strength of the specific bonds in each solid. Some
metals have relatively low melting points, like mercury, which is actually a liquid at room temperature (its melting point
is -38oC), while others, such as tungsten, melt only at extremely high temperature (tungsten’s melting point is 3,422 oC).
Among network solids, a type of quartz called tridymite melts at 1,670oC while graphite melts at 4,489oC, and among
ionic solids, sodium chloride melts at 801oC while lithium bromide melts at 552 oC. Ionic bonds tend to be weaker than
covalent and metallic bonds, and for these reason, the melting points for these salts are somewhat lower than most of
the other examples of melting points of other substances mentioned.
Solubility
Melting is one way of changing a solid’s shape. Another process is dissolving solid into some type of liquid, in this
case referred to as a solvent. The extent to which a solid dissolves in a particular solvent is called its solubility. Solids can
be dissolved into a variety of types of solvents, but for now we will focus on solubility in water.
Dissolving a solid requires breaking different types of bonds for different types of solids. Dissolving a metal
requires breaking metallic bonds, and dissolving a network solid requires breaking covalent bonds. Both of these types of
bonds are very strong and hard to break. Therefore, metals and network solids are generally not soluble in water.
(Diamond rings probably would not be as valuable if the band and the stone dissolve while taking a shower.) In contrast,
dissolving a molecular solid requires breaking only weak intermolecular forces, not the covalent bonds that actually hold
the individual molecules together. Therefore, molecular solids are relatively soluble, as you might have been able to
guess why sugar is used in so many drinks.
Finally, to dissolve ionic solids, the ionic bonds between the atoms or molecules must be broken, which water
does pretty well. Each atom or molecule within an ionic solid carries a charge, and water molecules also carry charges
due to polarity. As a result, the negative charges within water are attracted to the positively charged ions, and the
positive charges within water are attracted to the negative ions. This allows the water molecules to dissolve ionic solids
by separating the parts, essentially trading the favorable ionic interaction in the solid crystal with favorable ionic
interactions between the individual ions and the water molecules. Therefore, most salts are relatively water-soluble.
Both salt and sugar are quite soluble in water, but because of the differences between ionic solids (salt) and
molecular solids (sugar), salt water behaves differently than sugar water (remember the light bulb experiment from the
previous section). When salt dissolves in water, the positively (Na +) and negatively (Cl-) charged ions that compose the
solid separate, creating a liquid solution of charges particles. These charged particles can pick up electrons and transfer
them across the solution, effectively conducting electricity. When salts such as ammonium sulphate dissolve, the ionic
bonds between the ions break, but the covalent bonds holding the individual complex ions together remain intact. By
comparison, when sugar dissolves, each individual sucrose molecule separates from its neighbors but the sucrose
molecules themselves remain intact and without charge, so they do not conduct electricity.
Density
Density, defined as the amount of mass per unit volume, is another important properly that depends on the
solid’s structure and composition. It is important to note that although we describe the different types of crystal solids
as having certain structural characteristics, there is significant variation within each type as well. For example, metallic
solids do not all share a similar arrangement of atoms. The atoms and molecules that make up crystals can pack in many
different ways, which affects density. Imagine a jar of neatly ordered marbles, with each dimple between marbles in one
row filled with a marble in the row above. This closely packed arrangement leads to a very high density. Gold takes on
approximately this type of packing, resulting in its high density of 19.3 grams per cubic centimeter. Now imagine another
instead of in the dimple. This type of packing leaves a lot more empty space in the jar because those dimples aren’t
filled, so if the jar is the same size as the first jar, it can’t hold as many marbles and is less dense. Lithium, which is the
least dense metal at 0.534 grams per cubic centimeter, is an example of this type of packing.
SOME ESSENTIAL PROPERTIES OF SOLID ARE:
1. A solid has a definite volume and definite shape.
a. Reason: The intermolecular force of attraction is very strong and the molecules are arranged in order.
2. A solid is rigid and cannot be compressed easily.
a. Reason: Molecules are closely spaced and the intermolecular separation is very small which cannot be reduced
further.
3. A solid does not diffuse into another solid easily.
a. Reason: Intermolecular force of attraction is so strong that molecules do not flow and leave the surface of the
solid.
4. A solid does not flow and can be stored in a container.
a. Reason: Intermolecular force of attraction is so strong that molecules do not flow and leave the surface of the
solid.
5. A solid on hating usually changes into its liquid state.
a. Reason: Heating provides sufficient energy to molecules to overcome the intermolecular force of attraction.
Intermolecular separation increases, changing the solid into liquid.
 CRYSTALLINE AND AMORPHOUS SOLIDS
Crystalline Solids
Crystalline solids, or crystals, are regarded as “true solids”. Minerals are crystalline solids. Common table salt is
one example of this kind of solid. In crystalline solids, the atoms ions or molecules are arranged in an ordered and
symmetrical pattern that is repeated over the entire crystal. The smallest repeating structure of a solid is called a unit
cell, which is like a brick in a wall. Unit cell combine to form a network called a crystal lattice. There are 14 types of
lattices, called Bravais lattices (named after Auguste Bravais, a 19 th- century French physicist), and they are classified
into seven crystal systems based on the arrangement of the atoms. The systems are cubic, hexagonal, rhombohedral,
monoclinic, triclinic as few are shown on table 1.1

Table 1.1
System Angles Between Sides Illustration
Rhombohedral All sides equal, angles 90o

Hexagonal Only 2 sides equal, one angle is 120o

Monoclinic No sides equal, one angles is not 90o

Triclinic No sides equal, no angle is 90o

Aside from the regular arrangement of particles, crystalline solids have several other characteristic properties.
They generally incompressible, meaning they cannot be compresses into smaller shapes. Because of the repeating
geometric structure of the crystal, all the bonds between the particles have equal strength. This means that a crystalline
solid will have a distinct melting point, because applying heat will break all the bonds at the same time.
Crystalline solids also exhibit anisotropy. This means that properties such as refractive index (how much light
bends when passing through the substance), conductivity (how well it conducts electricity) and tensile strength (the
force required to break it apart) vary depending on the direction from which force is applied. Crystalline solids also
exhibit cleavage; when broken apart, the pieces will have plane surfaces, or straight edges.

Amorphous Solids
In amorphous solids (literally “solids without form”), the particles do not have a repeating lattice pattern. They
are also called “pseudo solids.” Examples of these include glass, rubber, gels, and more plastics. An amorphous solid
does not have definite melting point; instead, it melts gradually over a range of temperatures, because the bond do not
break all at once. This means an amorphous solid will melt into a soft, malleable state (think candle wax or molten glass)
before turning completely into liquid.
Amorphous solids are unsymmetrical, so they do not have regular planes of cleavage when cut; the edges may be
curved. They are called isotropic because properties such as refractive index, conductivity and tensile strength are equal
regardless of the direction in which the force is applied.
 CHEMISTRY 2
MODULE 2

ASSESSMENT

Identification
_____1. They are called _____________ because properties such as refractive index, conductivity and
tensile strength are equal regardless of the direction in which the force is applied.
_____2. A _____________ is an aggregation of atomic nuclei and electrons that is sufficiently stable to
possess observable properties.
_____3. ___________ is a flow of electrons from one place to another.
_____4. ___________ is the amount of mass per unit volume.
_____5. _____________is the extent to which a solid dissolves in a particular solvent.
_____6. ______________ are regarded as “true solids”.
_____7. Its particles do not have a repeating lattice pattern.
_____8. Amorphous solids are also called as____________.
_____9. It is held together by covalent bonds.
_____10. Materials that do not conduct electricity are called _____________.

Essay (5 points each)

1. Give at least 3 of the essential properties of solid and explain briefly.