● Diffusion- This is the process by which different gases or different liquids mix

and is due to the random motion of their particles. Diffusing particles move
from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration.
● Brownian motion- occurs when particles collide with surrounding molecules,
causing them to move randomly.
● Atoms- the tiny particles that we cannot breakdown any further.
● Molecules- particles that consist of 2 or more atons joined together. Two or
more atoms held together by covalent bonds.
● Ions- atoms or groups of atoms that carry a charge. An ion is a charged
particle. It is charged because it has an unequal number of protons and
electrons.
● Heating curve- shows how the temperature of a substance changes as you
heat it up.
● Cooling curve- shows how the temperature of a substance changes as you
cool it down.
● Element- contains only one type of atom
● Periodic table- a chart showing all the elements arranged in order if increasing
atomic number.
● Compound- made of atoms of different elements bonded together.
● Mixture- contains different elements or compounds that are not chemically
bonded together. You can usually separate them quite easily.
● Subatomic particles- consist of protons, neutrons and electrons, because they
are smaller than the atom and are within it.
● Shells- energy levels in an atom, around the nucleus, in which electrons
circle.
● Proton numer/atomic number- the number of protons in the nucleus of an
atom.
● Nucleon number/mass number- the total number of protons and neutrons in
the nucleus of an atom.
● Electronic configuration- the distribution of electons in the orbitals of an atom.
● Period number- tells you how many electron shells are occupied.
● Group number- is the same as the number of outer electron shells.
● Noble gases- unreactive gases in the group VIII of the periodic table.
● Isotops- atoms of the same element that have the same number of protons,
but different number of neutrons. (iron has 4, magnesium has 3, chlorine has
2)
● Relative atomic mass of an element, Ar- the average mass of its isotope,
compared to 1/12 the mass of an atom of carbon-12.
● Chemical change- when one more new substance is formed, energy is taken
in or given out during the reaction and when the change is usually difficult to
reverse.
● Physical change- when no new substances are formed and when it is usually
easy to reverse.
● Cations- positive ions.
● Anions- negative ions.
● Ionic bond- a strong electrostatic attraction between ions of opposite charge.
Forms when metal atoms lose electrons to non-metal atoms. This gives
positive metal ions and negative non-metal ions, with full outer shell electrons.
They form a lattice. The compound has no overall charge. (examples- sodium
chloride, magnesium oxide, magnesium chloride)
● Lattice- a regular arrangement of alternating positive and negative ions.
● Covalent bond- sharing of electrons between two non metals.
● Single covalent bond- when two atoms share a pair of electrons, leading to full
outer shells. Eg. chlorine/hydrogen
● Double covalent bond- when two atoms share two pairs of electrons, leading
to full outer shells. Eg. oxygen
● Triple covalent bond- when two atoms share three pairs of electrons, leading
to full outer shells. Eg. nitrogen
● Diatomic- elements with molecules containing two atoms. (example- iodine,
oxygen)
● Molecular compound- atoms of different elements share electrons.
● Ionic compounds- have a high melting and boiling point, are usually soluble in
water, and can conduct electricity when melted or dissolved in water.
● Molecular covalent compounds- have low melting and boiling points, tend to
be insoluble in water and do not conduct electricity.
● Volatile- evaporate easily.
● Giant covalent structure- Substances with giant covalent structures are solids
with very high melting points. All the atoms are linked by strong covalent
bonds, which must be broken to melt the substance. Examples are diamond,
graphite and silicon(IV) oxide.
● Diamond- made of carbon atoms that are held in a strong lattice. A carbon
atom forms covalent bonds to 4 others and each outer atom bonds to three
more and so on. Eventually many trillions of carbon atoms are bonded
together in a giant covalent structure. It is very hard(high melting point, 3550
degrees celsius) and does not conduct electricity. Used for drilling and cutting.
● Silicon(IV) oxide- SiO2 occurs naturally as the mineral quartz in sand. Each
silicon atom bonds to 4 oxygen atoms and each oxygen atom bonds to 2
silicon atoms. It is hard, has a high melting point and does not conduct
electricity. Used in sand paper and and in bricks for lining furnaces.
● Allotropes- two forms of the same element.
● Graphite- made of only carbon atoms. Each carbon atom forms covalent
bonds to three others. This gives rings of six atoms. The rings form flat sheets
that lie on eachother and are held together by weak forces. Very soft and
slippery, this is because the sheets can slide over each other very easily.
Good conductor of electricity because each carbon atom has 4 outer shell
electrons but forms bonds with only 3. The 4th electron is free to move
through the graphite, forming an electric current. Used as a lubricant for
engines and locks because it is soft and slippery. Used as electrodes because
it carries electricity.
● Metallic bond- electrostatic attraction between the positive metal ions and a
sea of delocalized electrons.
● Metals- The atoms are packed tightly together in a regular lattice and the tight
packing allows the outer electrons to separate from their atoms. The result is
a sea of delocalised electrons that move freely. (eg. copper). Metals form a
giant lattice structure with strong metallic bonds. They have high melting
points, they are malleable and ductile and are good conductors of
heat(because the free electrons take in heat energy and start to move faster)
and electricity(because the free electrons move through the lattice as a
current of electricity, when a voltage is applied across the metal).
● Malleable- can be bent and pressed into shape.
● Ductile- can be drawn into wires.
● valency - the number of electrons an atom loses/gains/shares in forming
compounds.
● State symbols- symbols that are added to the equation, to show the state of
the reactant and product. Eg- (s) for solid, (g) for gas, (l) for liquid, (aq) for
aqueous solution.
●

● Rate- a measure of how fast or slow something is. It is the measure of the
change that happens in a single unit of time.
● Independent variable- the one which we (the experimenters) change.
● Dependant variable- the one which changes because we change the
independent variable.
● Control variable- a variable which is deliberately kept the same.
● Collision theory- the particles must collide with eachother and the collision
must have enough energy to be successful.
● Activation energy(Ea)- the minimum energy that colliding particles must have.
● Frequency of collisions- the number of collisions per unit of time.
● Catalyst- a substance that increases the rate of reaction, and is unchanged at
the end of the reaction.
● Enzymes- proteins made by cells to act as biological catalysts.
● Periodocity- The properties that reappear at regular intervals , or in which
there is a gradual variation at regular intervals.
● Transition elements- the block in the middle of the periodic table that are all
metals. They include most of the elements that we us everyday, such as
 iron,copper, zinc, nickel and silver. They have high densities, high melting
points, they are hard and strong and are good conductors and heat and
electricity. Their chemical properties include- they are much less reactive than
group I metals, they do not show a clear trend in reactivity, most transition
elements form coloured compounds, and many transition elements and their
compounds act as catalysts. Moreover, most can form ions with different
charges(eg. Cu2+, Cu+) and most can form more than one compound, with
another element(eg. Cu2O, CuO and Feo, Fe2O3)
● Alkali metal- are the group I metals. They are soft, silvery metals and are
lighter than most metals(have low density) and have low melting points.
Density increases as you go down and melting point decreases. The alkali
metal react vigorously with water, hydrogen bubbles off, leaving solutions of
their hydroxides, which are alkalis. They react with chlorine, burning brightly,
forming chlorides. They react with oxygen, burning fiercely, forming oxides.
They dissolve in water to give alkaline solutions. Reactivity increases as you
go down group I. When alkali metals react, their atoms become ions. The
procuts are ionic compounds. The alkali metal form ions with charge of 1+.
They produce ionic compounds which are all white solids and these dissolve
in water to form colourless solutions.
● Halogens- are the group VII non metals. They include chlorine, bromine,
iodine and fluorine. They are all different colours, are all poisonous and form
diatomic molecules. Density increases and boiling point decreases as you go
down group VII. Halogens react with metals to form compounds called
halides. Reactivity decreases as you go down group VII. When halogen react
with metals, their atoms accept accept electrons to form halide ions. Products
are ionic compounds. Eg. Iron(III) chloride (FeCl3). When halogens react with
non-metals their atons share electrons, giving molecules with covalent bonds.
Eg. HCl. A halogen will displace a less reactive halogen from a solution of its
halide.
● Trend- a gradual change.
● Metalloid- Has properties of both metals and non-metals. Eg.Silicon
● Oxidation number- is a number given to each atom or ion in a compound to
keep track of how many electrons they have.
● Solvent- a substance that dissolves a solute.
● Solute- a susbance that is dissolved in a solvent.
● Solution- a mixture of one or more solutes dissolved in a solvent.
● Aqueous solution- the solution when water is the solvent.
● Soluble- the capability of being dissolved in a liquid.
● Insoluble- the incapability of being dissolved in a liquid.
● Saturated solution- when it can no longer dissolve more solute at that
temperature.
● Filtration- used to separate an insoluble solid from a liquid. Eg. It is useful for
separating sand from a mixture of sand and water, or excess reactant from a
solution. You obtain a residue(trapped in the filter paper) and a
filtrate(obtained in a flask).
● Crystallization- Crystallisation is used to produce solid crystals from a
solution. It works if the solid that you want to separate from the solution is less
soluble at lower temperatures. You first heat the solution, as it becomes more
and more concentrated. Eventually, the solution becomes saturated and if you
cool it now then crystals will start to form. You can check if its ready by placing
 a drop on a microscope slide. Crystals will form quickly on the cool gas. Leave
the solution to cool and crystals will start growing as the temperature falls.
Finally remove the crystals from the solution by filtering and dry them with
filter paper.
● Evaporation- Evaporation can be used as a separation method to separate
components of a mixture with a dissolved solid in a liquid. The liquid is
evaporated, meaning it is convert from its liquid state to gaseous state. This
often requires heat. Once the liquid is completely evaporated, the solid is all
that is left behind. It can be used for substances whose solubility changes
very little as the temperature falls.
● Simple distillation- used to separate the solvent from a solution, leaving the
solute behind. The solution is heated, and pure water evaporates producing a
vapour which rises through the neck of the round bottomed flask.The vapour
passes through the condenser, where it cools and condenses, turning into the
pure liquid that is collected in a beaker. After all the water is evaporated from
the solution, only the solid solute will be left behind.
● Fractional distillation- This is used to separate liquids from eachother. It
makes use of their different boiling points. The solution is heated to the
temperature of the substance with the lowest boiling point. This substance will
rise and evaporate first, and vapours will pass through a condenser, where
they cool and condense, turning into a liquid that will be collected in a beaker.
All of the substance is evaporated and collected, leaving behind the other
components(s) of the mixture. The apparatus is like the apparatus for simple
distillation but with a glass column filled with glass beads and a thermometer
added. Fractional distillation is carried out on a large scale in industry to refine
petroleum, in producing ethanol and to separate oxygen, nitrogen and the
noble gases from air.
● Paper chromatography- It is used to separate substances from a mixture, to
check whether a substance is pure, and to identify substances in a mixture.
● Chromatogram- the paper showing the separated substances.
● Origin- The position of the spot.
● Solvent front- the solvent move up the paper and the point where it stops, is
called the solvent front.
● Retention factor(Rf0- retention means holding back. The Rf value of a
compound is aways the same for a given solvent, under the same conditions.
Itis the ratio of the distance the spot moved above the origin to the distance
the solvent front moved above the origin.
● Pure substance- a pure substance consists only of one element or one
compound. You can check the purity of a substance by carrying out paper
chromatography or by finding the melting and boiling points of the substance.
A pure substance has a definite, sharp melting and boiling point(they are
different for each substance). The purity of a substance can be inceaed by
rinsing a sollid product with distilled water and by repeating the separation
technique.
● Impure substance- A substance made from more than one element or one
compound is impure. When a substance contains an impurity, its melting point
falls, and its boiling point rises. It melts and boils over a range of
temperatures, not sharply. The bigger impurity there is in a substance, the
bigger the change in melting and boiling point and the wider the temperature
range over which it changes state.
● Acids- Non-metal compounds in water which can be dilute or concentrated.
Acids turn blue litmus paper red. Acids are proton donors. All acids contain
hydrogen ions. The hydrogen ions is what gives them their acidity.
● Bases- Oxides and hydroxides of metals. Bases are generally insoluble in
water. They are proton acceptors. They turn red limus blue. Eg. Zinc
hydroxide and copper oxide.
● Alkali- soluble bases. They are hydroxides. All alkali are bases. Eg.
Potassium hydroxide and sodium hydroxide. All alkalis contain hydroxide ions.
● Indicator- Indicators are dyes which change colour depending on the pH of
the solution.

● pH scale- A special scale of numbers which can be used to determine if

something is acidic or alkaline. The numbers go from 0 to 14. An acidic
solution has a pH number less than 7. An alkaline solution has a pH number
greater than 7. A neutral solution has a pH number of exactly 7.
● Universal indicator- Universal indicator is a mixture of different dyes which
change colour in a gradual way over a range of pH.

● pH meter- an instrument used to measure hydrogen ion activity in solutions -

in other words, this instrument measures acidity/alkalinity of a solution.
● Strong acid- undergo complete dissociation and only ions are present in the
solution. Colour of pH paper will be red and the pH will be between 0 and 3 if
it is a strong acid. During electrolysis, a strong acid will undergo complete
dissociation so the bulb will glow brightly.
● Weak acid- undergo partial dissociation and ions and molecules are both
present in the solution. The colour of the pH paper will be yellow/orange and
the pH will be between 4 and 6 if it is a weak acid. During electrolysis, a weak
acid will undergo partial dissociation and so the bulb will glow dimly.
● Strong base- undergo complete dissociation and only ions are present in the
solution. Colour of pH paper will be dark blue/violet and the pH will be
between 12 and 14 if it is a strong base. During electrolysis, a strong base will
undergo complete dissociation so the bulb will glow brightly.
● Weak base- undergo partial dissociation and ions and molecules are both
present in the solution. The colour of the pH paper will be green/blue and the
pH will be between 8 and 11 if it is a weak base. During electrolysis, a weak
base will undergo partial dissociation and so the bulb will glow dimly.
● Neutralization- a reaction with acid which gives water as well as salt. So the
reaction of bases and carbonates with acids are neutralizations.
● Ionic equation- shows just the ions that take part in the reaction.
● Oxides- compounds containing oxygen and another element.
● Basic oxides- metal oxides. Metals react wih oxygen to form basic oxides.
When a metal oxide dissolves in water, it forms a base. Basic oxides belong
to a larger group of compounds called bases. (examples- Ca+O2=CaO,
4Fe+3O2=2Fe2O3)
● Acidic oxides- non metal oxides. When a non-metal dissolves in water it forms
an acid. Non metals react with oxygen to form acidic oxides. (examples-
C+O2=CO2, S+O2=SO2)
● Neutral oxides- are oxides which are neither acidic, nor basic. They do not
react with acids nor bases. (examples- H2O and CO, carbon monoxide)
● Amphoteric oxides- oxides which show both acidic as well as basic properties.
Reacts with both acids and bases. (examples- aluminium oxide, Al2O3, zinc
oxide, ZnO)
● Electric circuit-An electrical circuit is a complete route that an electric current
can flow around.
● Electricity- a stream of electrons
● Conductors- A conductor allows current to flow easily through it. Conductors
are used in cables that carry electricity around the country and are made of
aluminium and steel. The only solids that conduct are metals and
carbon(graphite), they conduct because of their free electrons. Ionic
compounds dont conduct when solid, but they do conduct when melted or
dissolved in water, they break down at the same time.
● Non conductor/insulator-An Insulator doesn't allow current to flow through it.
Examples include plastic and ceramic. Ceramic discs support the bare cables
at pylons and prevent the current from running down the pylon. Molecular
substances are non-conductors becase they do not contain any free electrons
or charged particles that can flow through them.
● Electrolysis- is using an electric current to break up an ionic compound to
form elements. It is the decomposition of an ionic compound, when molten or
in an aqueous solution, by the passage of an electric current. Electro means
electricity and lysis means breaking down of. It decomposes the molten
compound down to its elements, giving the metal at the cathode and the
non-metal at the anode.
● Electrode- the rods which allow electricity to pass. They are made of carbon,
graphite or platinum because they are inert(chemically unreactive).
● Electrolyte- the solution which undergoes electrolysis. It should either be in an
aqueous or molten state, because ions are free to move.
● Anode- the positive electrode, to which negative ions, anions are attracted.
● Cathode- the negative electrode, to which positive ions, cations are attracted.
● Oxidation- losing electrons. Negative ions are oxidises. (OIL)
● Reduction- Gaining electrons. Positive ions are reduced. (RIG)
● Effervescenses- bubbles
● Molten- liquid state
● Electroplating- means using electricity to coat one metal with another, to make
it look better or to prevent corrosion. The electrodes used for electoplating are
called active electrons(which means they take part in the reaction and are not
inert). The material/substance to be coated is always placed at the cathode
and the metal that is used for plating is placed at the anode. The electrolyte
only helps in the movement of ions and should be an aqueous salt of the
same metal.
● Electrorefining- refining means removing impurities. The anode is made of
impure copper and the cathode is made of pure copper. Mass of anode
decreases and mass of cathode increases. The impurities will remain below
the anode and can be filtered later. The copper sulphate electrolyte doesnt
fade over time because the rate at which copper ions are added is the same
as the rate at which they are being deposited/consumed at the cathode.
Hence the colour of copper sulphate electrolyte stays the same(blue).
● Ore- the rock that is rich in the metal.
● Extraction- the removal of a metal from its ore using electricity.
● Extraction of aluminium- Aluminium is the most abundant metal in Earth’s
crust. The ore for aluminium is bauxite(aluminium oxide, Al2O3). There are
many steps in involved in obtaining aluminium. First, geologists test rocks and
find out if the bauxite is worth mining, if all is satisfactory, mining begins.
Bauxite is red-brown in colour and is usually near the surface, so is easy to
dig up. The ore is taken to a bauxite plant, where impurities are removed and
the result is white aluminium oxide. The aluminium oxide is then broken down
by electrolysis to give aluminium. The aluminium is then made into sheets,
rolls and blocks and is sold to industries. It is used to make cans for drinks,
food cartons, cooking foil, bikes, electricity cables, cars and trains, etc.
Aluminium oxide has a melting point of 2072 degrees celsius. So, to save fuel
costs it isnt melted and is dissolved in molte cryolite(Na3AIF6). This reduces
the melting point and is a good solvent for aluminium oxide. The solution is
also a better conductor than aluminium oxide would have been. Aluminium is
used in aircraft because it has low density and restists corrosion. It is used in
cooking foils, food containers and drink cans because it has low density,
resists heat and corrosion, non-toxic and can be rolled into thin sheets. It is
also used as overhead electricity cables because it is ductile, has low density,
resists corrosion and is a good conductor of electricity.
● Hydrogen oxygen fuel cell- used oxygen and hydrogen to produce electricity.
The only chemical product is water, which is harmless. In this the cell acts as
a battery and the reaction in the cell is what produces the current. The
advantages of the hydrogen oxygen fuel cell are that the only chemical
product is water, which is harmless, Quieter so less noise pollution compared
to a petrol engine, They release more energy per kilogram than either petrol
or diesel and hydrogen can be made by the electrolysis of water, which is
plentiful on adding a little acid. The disavantages of the hydrogen oxygen fuel
cell are that Materials used in producing fuel cells are expensive, Hydrogen is
very difficult and expensive to store, There are only a small number of
hydrogen filling stations available and Hydrogen is often obtained by methods
that involve the combustion of fossil fuels, therefore releasing carbon dioxide
and other pollutants into the atmosphere.