CHEMISTRY FTE

STATES OF MATTER

Solids –

● Tightly packed

● Lattice arrangement

● Vibrate in their own position

● Strong Intermolecular Force Of Attraction

● Less Intermolecular Space

Liquids-

● Touching each other

● Irregular arrangement

● Slide pass each other

● Less Intermolecular Force Of Attraction

● More Intermolecular Space

Gasses-

● Far apart

● Random arrangement

● Move freely

● Very weak Intermolecular Force Of Attraction

 ● A lot of Intermolecular Space

If you increase the temperature the kinetic energy of particles increases and
intermolecular space increases.

Melting point – the temperature at which a solid starts to turn to a liquid at

atmospheric pressure.
Boiling point – the temperature at which a liquid starts to turn to a gas at
atmospheric pressure.
Pure substances have fixed melting and boiling points.
Sublimation – when some solids do not melt when heated at normal pressures,
instead they directly turn into gas.
Sublime solids

● Ammonium Chloride

● Iodine

● Carbon Dioxide (Dry Ice)

What is the difference between evaporation and boiling?

● Boiling takes place at the boiling point.

● Evaporation liquid turns to gas at any temperature bellow boiling point.

 ● Boiling is quicker than evaporation

● Boiling is a bulk phenomenon whereas evaporation is a surface

phenomenon.
Pure substances – contain only one substance with a fixed melting point and
boiling point- elements, molecules and compounds.
The presence of impurities in a substance lowers m.p and increases b.p
Phase Change
As you start heating a solid, kinetic energy increase, inter molecular force of attraction
decreases, intermolecular space increases and when it reaches its melting point it starts to
turn to liquid.
As temperature increases, kinetic energy increase, pressure increases and particles start
moving faster.
Kinetic Particle Theory

● All matter is made up of very small particles.

● The particles moving are moving all the time.

● The freedom of movement and the arrangement of particles is different from

the 3 states of matter.
● The pressure of the gas is produced by the atoms or molecules of the gas
hitting the walls of the container, the more often the particles collide with
the walls, the greater the pressure.
● The average kinetic energy of particles increases with temperature.

Diffusion
The phenomena by which particles mix and spread through collisions with each
other. Particles move (spreading and mixing) from area of higher concentration to
lower concentration.
Eg: When opening a can of soda the CO2 diffuses in the air.
Factors Effecting Diffusion

● Temperature – the higher the temperature the faster the diffusion (kinetic
energy increases)
● Size – smaller particles diffuse faster than larger particles.

● Mass – lower the mass the more is diffused.

ATOMS, ELEMENTS, COMPOUNDS, MOLECULES AND MIXTURES

● An Atom is the smallest particle of an element or compound that can exist

independently. It consists of subatomic particles – electrons, protons,
neutrons.
● An Element is a pure substance made up of the same type of atoms.

● A Compound is a pure substance made up of two or more different types of

atoms ionic ally bonded.
● Molecules are a pure substance made up of two or more atoms covalently
bonded together.
● A Mixture is an impure substance made by mixing of atoms, elements,
compounds or molecules, they are not chemically bonded.

Atomic structure

● Sodium:
Mass No. - No. Of Protons + No. Of Neutrons
23
Na11
Atomic No. - No Of Protons = No. of Electrons
 ● Sodium Ion:

Na+ + Ion = No. Of Protons > No. Of Electrons

- Ion = No. Of Protons < No. Of Electrons
Protons = 11
Neutrons = 12
Electrons = 10
Electron configuration

● 2n2 rule – n = no. of electrons

● Outermost shell cannot have more than 8 electrons.

● Group no. = electrons in outermost shell In the periodic table rows

represent periods and
columns represent groups
● Eg –

Phosphorus

15 P
2, 8, 5

Bromine

33Br
2, 8,18,7
Isotopes

● Isotopes are atoms of the same element with the same atomic no. but
different no. of neutrons.
● Eg –

79
Br35 Protons = 35 Electrons = 35 Neutrons = 44
81
Br35 Protons = 35 Electrons = 35 Neutrons = 46

● Isotopes differ in physical properties but stay the same in chemical properties
as the no. of electrons in the outermost shell stays the same.

Relative Atomic Mass

Relative atomic mass is the weighted average mass of all the natural
occurring isotopes of the element relative to the mass of carbon 12 atoms.

Eg-

79
Br35 50% 50 x 79 + 50 x 81 = 80%
100
81
Br35 50%
Relative Molecular Mass

Sum of atomic mass of all the atoms present in the molecule relative to the
carbon 12 atom.
Eg.

NH3
 14 + (3x1) = 17

CaCO3
40 + 12 + (3x16) = 100

Ions

● Metals react by losing electrons and form positive ions called cations.

● Nonmetals react by gaining electrons and forming negative ions called

anions, or by sharing electrons (covalent bonding).
● Ions- charged particles formed by either gaining or losing electrons.

● Valency- number of electrons lost, gained or shared by an atom to achieve

complete outermost shell.

Compounds Formed By Neutralization

1) Na+1 Cl-1
NaCl
Sodium Chloride

2) Al+3 O-2
Al2O3
 Aluminum Oxide

Naming Of Compounds

1. Sodium Hydrogen Carbonate

Na+ HCO3-1
NaHCO3

2. Iron (III) Chloride

Fe3+ Cl-
FeCl3

Naming Of Covalent Compounds

Mono – 1
Di – 2
1) N2F4 Tri – 3
Tetra – 4
Dinitrogen Tetrafluoride Penta – 5
Hexa – 6
Hepta – 7
Octa - 8
2) H3 P
Trihydrogen Monophosphide

Ionic Bonding
● Ionic bonding is the electrostatic force of attraction between positive ions
(cations) and negative ions (anions).
 Structure of Ionic Compounds
● Regular arrangement of cations and anions placed alternatively.

Why do ionic compounds exist as solids?

● They exist as solids because of lattice arrangement of cations and anions
alternatively placed.

Why do ionic compounds have high m.p and b.p?

● It is due to the strong electrostatic force of attraction

For conduction of electricity a moving charged particle is needed.

What can you say about the conduction of electricity by an ionic
compound?
● Ionic compounds cannot conduct electricity in solid form but can in molten
or aquice form.
● For conduction of electricity a moving charged particle is needed.

● In molten or aquice form, ions are free to move.

What can you say about the mobility and ductility of an ionic compound?
● Ionic compounds are non-mobile and non-ductile because when ionic
compounds are hammered, and layers slide over each other, there is a time
where like charges come together and because of repulsion, crystal breaks

Metallic Bonding
● Metallic bonding is the electrostatic force of attraction between positive
metal ions and delocalized sea of electrons.
● Lattice of metal ions in delocalized sea of electrons.

Properties of metals
● Conductors of electricity in solid or liquid form due to presence of delocalized
sea of electrons.
● High m.p and b.p due to strong electrostatic force of attraction between
positive metal ions and delocalized sea of electrons.
● Malleable and ductile because they have layers that can slide past each other
because of the presence of a delocalized sea of electrons.

Alloys
● Alloys are mixtures of 2 or more metals.

● Alloys are less malleable and less ductile as compared to pure metals due to
presence of different sizes of cations, it’s hard for layers to slide past each
other.
● Alloys are preferred for some uses because of their superior properties
compared to pure metals.
● Alloys can conduct electricity just like metals because of the presence of
delocalized electrons.

Covalent Bonding
● Covalent bonding is the chemical bond between 2 non-metals formed by
sharing electrons.
 Properties of covalent compounds
● Are usually liquid, gasses or soft solids at room temperatures as they have
irregular arrangement and have a weak intermolecular force of attraction.
● Not conductors of heat or electricity due to no freely moving charged
particles (electrons or ions)
● Low m.p and b.p due to weak intermolecular force of attraction

● Non-malleable and non-ductile due to no lattice arrangement.

● Usually soluble in organic solvents (organic solvents usually have covalent

bonding in them, like dissolves like)
 Experimental skills

Planning experiments

● Materials required – apparatus, reagents

● Hypothesis

● Method/Procedure – steps for experiment

● Collect data – analyze data or plot graph then analyze

● Conclusion

Variables

● Changing – which changes during the experiment.

● Controlled/constant – which can’t be changed during experiment.

● Independent variable – something which either changes by itself during the

experiment (time in the m.p experiment) or we change it during experiment
(mass in the experiment for the effect of mass on diffusion.). on x axis.

● Dependent variable – something which changes in the experiment due to

change in independent variable (temperature changes with time in m.p
experiment/ time changes with mass in rate of diffusion experiment). on y
axis.