Ch 1: Stoichiometric Relationships

What is stoichiometry?
● From Greek, stoichio (element) + metron (measure)
● Describes the relationships between the amounts of reactants and products during
chemical reactions → “atomic book-keeping”
● Closes the gap between what can be measured and what is happening atomically

1.1 Particulate nature & chemical change

States of matter
Kinetic particle theory

mass of desired product

% Atom economy = ×100 %
total mass of products

1.2 The mole concept

● Relative atomic mass = mass of 1 mole of a substance relative to 1 mole of carbon-12
● Mass of an individual atom - weighted average of the different isotopes w/ abundance

1.3 Reacting masses and volumes

Limiting and excess reactants

● Limiting reactant: the reactant that is completely used up in a chemical reaction;
determines the quantity of a product
○ the least amount of moles based on its mole ratio
● Excess reactants:: the remaining reactants that will not be fully used up

Percentage and theoretical yields

● Theoretical yield: the maximum amount of product obtainable if 100% of the limiting
reactant is converted to product; leaves out:
○ Impurities present
○ Loss of substance
○ Wastage
○ Incomplete reaction
● Experimental yield: the actual yield from the conducted experiment
● Percentage yield = (experimental / theoretical) x 100%

Avogadro’s law
● V∝n
● Equal volumes of gas contain equal number of particles @ same temp and pressure
 ● Molar volume = 22.7 dm3 mol-1 @ STP (100kPa, 273K)
● Volume = moles * molar volume

Gas Laws
Kinetic molecular theory (of ideal gas):
1. Size of the gas particles are negligible
2. No significant attraction or repulsion between particles (elastic collisions)
a. They’re so small and far apart each other
b. A lot of KE

Absolute temperature: when particles do not move at all / KE of particles = 0 / volume = 0

→ 0K (always in K!)

1
● Volume and pressure (Boyle’s Law) → P ∝
V
● Volume and temperature (Charles’ Law) → V ∝ T

● Pressure and temperature (Guy-lussac’s law) → P ∝ T

Real Gases
● There are no such things as ideal gases; all gases are technically real gases
● Real gases behave ideally at high temperature and low pressure
○ Higher temperature/lower pressure → greater deviation from PV/RT = 1
○ Less ideally: PV/RT > 1
→ closer to changing to a liquid

Why?
● As pressure increases, volume decreases (particles get closer together) → attractive forces
become stronger and further decrease the volume compared to an ideal gas
● As volume increases, the size of the particles in comparison to the entire gas increases as
well → size of particle no longer negligible
Chapter 2: Atomic Structure
*History of Atomic Model
John Dalton — modern idea of the atom
● All matter made of atoms, cannot be created and destroyed
● Form molecules and compounds, fixed proportions
● Chemical symbols

J. J. Thomson — atoms contain electrons

● Plum pudding model

Rutherford — nucleus
● Fired alpha particles (helium nuclei) at a piece of gold foil
● Some particles were repelled and bounced back; most passed through
● Conclusion: atoms are mainly empty space; deflect when hit nucleus

Later — subatomic particles

● Protons + neutrons in nucleus = neutrons
● Electrons outside
● Electrons have much smaller mass

Niels Bohr — solar system model of hydrogen

● Electron orbiting nucleus
● Electrostatic attraction → electron stays in place
● (neutrons needed for stability in larger particles)

Atomic number and mass number

Number of subatomic particles

● Protons = atomic number
● Neutrons = mass number - atomic number
● Electrons = atomic number – charge

Isotopes
total mass Σ (mass× number / percentage )
Relative average mass = =
number of atoms Σ( number / percentage)

Written as [element]-[mass number], e.g. carbon-12, chlorine-35

Ions
Relative atomic masses
● Mass spectrometer is an instrument used to measure the mass of individual atoms
● Relative atomic mass is needed to make masses easier to express
● Carbon-12 a standard isotope, given a relative mass of 12
● Data from mass spectrometer represented in a mass spectrum
○ Horizontal axis – mass/charge ratio
○ Vertical axis – percentage abundance

Electron configuration
● Different elements give out light of a distinctive color when electric discharge is passed
through a vapor; metals can be identified by the color of flame produced when heated →
Electromagnetic radiation

Electromagnetic spectrum
● All EM waves have same speed
● Different wavelengths
● Colors of visible light determined by wavelengths
○ ROYGBV – longest to shortest (700-400nm)
● Frequency (v or f)
● c = v λ or f λ
● White light is a mixture of different wavelengths → continuous spectrum when sunlight
passes through a prism or water droplets
● Atoms also emit infrared radiation

Atomic absorption and emission line spectra

● When EM radiation is passed through atoms, some radiation is absorbed by electrons →
excite atoms from a lower to higher energy level → jump back down → emits photons →
line spectra
● Energy levels are concentric and converging
● Lines converge at high energy (get closer and closer together)
● Jump to very high n (infinity) → electron removed
● Bigger jump → bigger energy → smaller wavelength/higher frequency light

Jumps to… Light produced

n=1 UV

n=2 Visible or UV
● From 6 = UV
● From 5 = Violet
● From 4 = Blue
● From 3 = Red

n=3 infrared
Atomic orbitals
● electron configuration
● Aufbau Principle: electrons placed in orbitals of
lowest energy first
● Pauli Exclusion Principle: no more than 2
electrons, with opposite spins, can occupy an orbital
● Hund’s rule: orbitals in a sublevel are singly occupied
first → minimize repulsion, with the same spin →
lower energy

Orbitals represented with boxes (orbital diagram)

Chapter 3: Periodic Trends
Physical Properties
Atomic Radius
● Ionic Radius

Ionization Energy
●

Electron Affinity
●

Electronegativity
●

Melting Points
●

Chemical Properties
Group 18: Noble Gases

Group 1: Alkali Metals

Group 17: Halogens

Bonding of Period 3 Oxides

Chapter 4: Chemical Bonding
4.1 Ionic Bonding
● Lattice structure

Difference in electronegativity Type of bond

0 – 0.3 Non-polar covalent

0.3 < x <= 1.7 Polar covalent

1.7 < x Ionic

4.2 Covalent Bonding

● Two nonmetals share electrons to complete outer shell → stable electron structure
○ Shared electrons holds atoms together = bond
● Bond formation stabilizes atom and releases energy
● Fixed distance apart between the atoms in a bond
● Octet rule: the tendency of atoms to form stable arrangements of 8 valence
electrons

Single/double/triple bonds
● More bonds → shorter bond length, stronger bond (bond enthalpy increase)
● Greater atomic radius → longer and weaker bond
● (Double bond is not 2x as strong as single bond – different bond type!)

Polarity
● electrons are not shared equally (more polar atom pulls electrons closer)
● Truly non-polar bonds are only between diatomic molecules
● Partial charges introduces ionic nature

4.3 Covalent Structures

Lewis structures
● Coordinate bonds:
● Exceptions to octet rule??
● Incomplete octet
VESPR Theory
● Electron domains repel and spread as far apart as possible to be most stable
(minimize energy due to repulsion)
○ Applies to single, double, triple, and non-bonding pairs
● Total number of electron domains around central atom determines geometrical
arrangement
● Shape determined by bond angles
● Shape determines polarity as well

Strength of Repulsion between electron pairs

Lone-lone strongest Stronger → increase angle of
separation
Lone-bonding ︙

Bonding-bonding weakest Weaker → standard/equal

angle of separation

Shapes
Electron domains Shape name Angle (degrees)

2 Linear 180

3 (0 LP) Triangular planar 120

3 (1 LP) Bent ~117

4 (0 LP) Tetrahedral 109.5

4 (1 LP) Trigonal pyramidal ~107

4 (2 LP) Bent ~105

Resonance Structures
● Delocalized electrons in multiple bonds when there is more than 1 possible position for a
double bond → electrons spread themselves equally between possible bonding positions
● Resonance bond represented by dots
● Bond strengths is divided amongst the 3
○ e.g. for CO32-, each bond has equal strength of 1.33 (1 resonance div. by 3)
Giant Molecular Structures
● Formula only represents ratio, not fixed molecular formula (unending)

Carbon Allotropes and Properties

4.4 Intermolecular forces

London Dispersion Forces

●

Dipole-Dipole Forces
●

Hydrogen Bonding
●

4.5 Metallic Bonding