Chapter 1

● Matter: any substance that occupies space and has mass

● Mixture: a substance made up of two or more elements or compounds that
are not chemically bonded
○ Homogenous: a mixture whose components are all in the same
phase, having uniform composition and properties throughout
○ Heterogenous: a mixture whose components are in difference
phases, having non-uniform composition and varying properties
● Pure substance: a substance made up of one element or compound, with a
definite and constant composition
○ Element: substance made up of one type of atom of the same atomic
number
○ Compound: substance made up of different elements/atoms
chemically bonded together, with different properties from their
individual elements
● Mole: amount of substance that contains the same amount of particles as
12g of carbon-12
● Relative molecular mass / relative formula mass (Mr): the mass of a
molecule of a substance relative to 1/12 the mass of carbon-12 (grams)
● Relative atomic mass (Ar): the weighted average of the masses of an atom
and their abundances relative to 1/12 the mass of carbon-12 (grams)
● Molar mass (M): the mass of one mole of a substance (gmol-1)
● Empirical formula: a formula showing the simplest whole number ratio of
atoms of each element in a compound
● Molecular formula: a formula showing the actual number of atoms of each
element in a compound
● Limiting reactant: the substance which is completely used up in a chemical
reaction and therefore determines the amount of products formed
● Excess reactant: the substance(s) not completely used up in a chemical
reaction because they exceed the amount reacting with the limiting reactant
● Theoretical yield: the amount of product that can theoretically be produced
and calculated in a chemical reaction, under ideal or perfect conditions
● Experimental yield: the amount of product that is actually produced and
measured in a chemical reaction
○ Not maximized due to: impurities, loss of product from vessels,
unideal environmental conditions, reverse reactions consuming
products in equilibrium systems, or side reactions due to impurities
 ● Ideal gas: gasses that contain randomly loving particles of negligible volume,
negligible intermolecular forces,

Chapter 2
● Element: a substance that cannot be broken down into simpler substances
by a chemical reaction
● Atom:
● Molecules:
● Compound: a substance made by chemically combining two or more
elements; has different properties from its constituent elements
● Atomic number (Z): number of protons in the nucleus; defining property of
an element; equal to number of electrons
● Mass number (A): number of protons + neutrons, or total number of
neutrons; also called nucleon number
● Isotopes: atoms of the same element with different mass numbers
● Ions: atoms with a non-zero charge due to gaining or losing electrons
● Cations: atoms with a positive charge due to losing electrons; positive ion
● Anions: atoms with a negative charge due to gaining electrons; negative ion
● Relative atomic mass (Ar): the average mass of an atom of an element
relative to 1/12 of the mass of a carbon-12 atom, taking into account its
isotopes and relative abundance
● Wavelength: distance between two successive crests or troughs of a wve
● Frequency: number of waves which pass a point in 1s
● First ionization energy: minimum energy needed to remove one mole of
electrons from one mole of gaseous atoms in their ground state
● Ground state:
● Excited state:
● Atomic orbitals: a region around an atomic nucleus in which there is a 90&
probability of finding the electron
○ Orbital: a wave description of the electron, shows the volume of
space in which the electron is likely to be found
● Degenerate orbitals: a group of orbitals with the same energy (e.g. the three
orbitals in 2p sublevel)
● Continuous spectrum: a color spectrum that shows all wavelengths of
visible light, in a gradient
● Line spectrum: shows discrete wavelengths of visible light (or colors)
● Isoelectronic: atoms with the same number of electrons/same electron
configuration
Chapter 11
● Interpolation:
● Extrapolation:
●

Chapter 3
● Nuclear charge: the charge from the nucleus of the atom, equal to its atomic
number or number of protons
● Effective nuclear charge: nuclear charge that is experienced by the atom’s
outer electrons
○ increases across period, stays approximately same down the group
● Shielding: when outer electrons of an atom are repelled by inner electrons,
decreasing the effective nuclear charge
● First ionization energy: the energy required to remove one mole of electrons
from one mole of gaseous atoms in their ground state
○ Removing an electron is endothermic (absorbs energy, + E change)
● Electron affinity: the energy change that occurs (or energy released) when
one mole of electrons is added to one mole of gaseous atoms
○ Negative value — adding an electron is exothermic due to attraction
(releases energy)
● Electronegativity: the ability of an atom to attract electrons in a covalent
bond
● Valence electrons: electrons occupying the outer energy level of an atom
● Atomic (or ionic) radius: the distance from the valence energy level to the
nucleus of an atom (or ion); half a distance between neighboring nuclei
● Oxide: a substance formed from the combination of an element with oxygen
● Basic: a substance that donates a pair of positive electrons or accepts a
proton to form a bond; reacts with water to form metal hydroxides
○ Alkali: bases which are soluble in water; form hydroxide ions in
aqueous solutions
● Acidic: receives a pair of electrons or donates a proton to form a bond;
reacts with water to form acidic solutions
● Amphoteric: show both acidic and basic properties / may act as an acid or a
base
● Diatomic molecule
Chapter 4
* repeated ones from above
● *Ions: atoms with a non-zero charge due to gaining or losing electrons
○ *Cations: atoms with a positive charge due to losing electrons
○ *Anions: atoms with a negative charge due to gaining electrons
● *Valence electrons: electrons occupying the outer energy level of an atom
○ Group 14 elements do not form ions because they have 4 electrons
● Noble gases: Group 18 elements which have full outer shells of electrons
and do not react due to this stability
● Transition elements: metals occuring in the middle of the periodic table with
electron configurations that allow them to lose different numbers of electrons
from their d sub-shell/can form stable ions with different charges
○ The two ions have distinct properties, e.g. diff color compounds
○ Oxidation number given
● Polyatomic ions: ions made up of more than one atom which together have
experienced a loss or gain of electrons and carry a charge
● Ionization: the process where electrons are transferred between atoms,
when an atom loses electrons and directly passes them to an atom that gains
them; usually occurs from a metal to nonmetal
● Ionic bond: electrostatic forces that hold together oppositely charged ions
resulting from electron transfer into a compound
● Ionic compounds: compounds held together by ionic bonds/form due to
ionization (Electrically neutral as there is no net loss/gain)
● Ionic lattice: a three-dimensional crystalline structure formed by ioinic
compounds due to their tendency to surround themselves with opposite ions
● Coordination number: the number of ions that surround a given ion in a
lattice
● Formula unit
● Lattice energy
● Volatility: the tendency of a substance to vaporize (low volatility = high
melting point; high volatility = melt easily)
● Solubility: the ease with which a solid (solute) becomes dispersed through a
liquid (solvent) to form a solution, or dissolve
○ Partial charges in water attract ions and cause them to separate from the lattice
→ ions surrounded by water molecules (hydrated)
○ Solvated if the above happens in other non-water liquids
○ Ionic compounds usuallu insoluble in nonpolar molecules
● Covalent bond: electrostatic attraction between a pair of electrons and
positively pcharged nuclei
 ● Lone pair (non-bonding pair): electron pairs in covalent molecules that are
not involved in forming the bonds
● Bond enthalpy: measure of the energy required to break a covalent bond
● Polarity: electrons are not shared equally in a covalent bond, one atom pulls
them closer due to greater electronegativity, cause unsymmetrical
distribution (partial charges)
○ grea

Chapter 5
●
Formulae
PV = nRT
● P in Pa
● V in m^3
● n in mol
● T in K

Relative molecular mass → no units

Molar mass → gmol-1

1 atomic mass / atomic mass unit = mass of 1/12 carbon-12 atom