TABLE OF CONTENTS

UNIT ONE PROPERTIES AND CHANGES

UNIT TWO PERIODIC TABLE AND THE ELEMENTS

RADIOACTIVITY AND HALF-LIFE

IMPORTANT MEN

UNIT THREE ELECTRIC CONFIGURATION

CHARACTERISTIC OF THE PERIODIC TABLE

UNIT FOUR BONDING

IONIC CONFIGURATION

WRITING BONDING FORMULAS

REDOX

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

MOLECULAR GEOMETRY

STATES OF MATTER AND INTERMOLECULAR FORCES

UNIT FIVE TYPES OF REACTIONS

MOLE MASS AND VOLUME

UNIT SIX STOICHIOMETRY

UNIT SEVEN HEATING CURVE PHASE DIAGRAM

NEW EQUILIBRIUM

UNIT EIGHT SOLUTIONS

MOLARITY

ACIDS AND BASES

MATH MATH
 DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS

PROPERTIES AND CHANGES

Extensive/ Depends on the amount of sample. Example: Mass and volume

extrinsic

Intensive/ Does not depend on the amount of sample. Example: density and specific
intrinsic heat.

Physical During a physical change, some properties of the matter may change, but
Change the composition remains the same. Can be both reversible and irreversible.
All phase changes are reversible, physical change. More examples of
physical change would be cutting pieces apart

Chemical Chemical changes is a process that creates a new matter with a different
Change/Reactio composition. An example would be the formation of a gas, change of color,
n and precipitation.
An element cannot be broken down by chemical means is only true for
normal elements or monatomic elements

Chemical Chemical symbols represent elements (example: C for Carbon)

Symbols and Chemical formulas represent compounds (example: H2O is water)
Formulas

Matter Forms: Heterogeneous = non-uniform mixture

Mixtures Homogeneous = uniform mixture
aq = aqueous (meaning mixture) always homogeneous

Matter Forms: Element = One element with s, l, or g

Pure Compound = Two or more elements chemically combined in a fixed ratio;
can be broken down into elements by chemical reactions
Matter Forms:
Model

Matter Forms: NaCI(aq) = homogeneous mixture

Examples NaCI(L) and NACIS are both pure compounds
H2O(L) = pure compound
C12H22O11(s) pure compound
F2(g) = pure element

7 Diatomic Hydrogen, Nitrogen, Flourine, Oxygen, Iodine, Chlorine, Iodine, and

Elements Bromine (ex. BR(L) = Pure diatomic element)
Always exists as 2 atoms

3 Types of Atoms (elements) - Ions (atoms with cha`rge, like K+ or Cl-) - Molecules
Particles

Reactivity The tendency of an element to enter into a chemical reaction

Reactant A substance present at the start of the reaction. Reactant(s) are on the left
hand side of the arrow.

Product A substance produced in a chemical reaction. Product(s) are on the right

hand side of the arrow.
Example: N2(g) + 3H2(g) →2NH3(g)

Law of Mass is neither created nor destroyed in a chemical reaction. The mass of
Conservation of the reactants always equals the mass of the products.
Mass

PERIODIC TABLE AND THE ELEMENTS

Arrangement ● Horizontal rows are called periods

 ● Vertical columns are called families or groups
● The periodic table is arranged in order of increasing atomic number
● The number of a particular group is written on top of that group
● The number of a particular period is written on the leftmost side of
the periodic table

Element Facts: ● Identity of an element is determined by the number of protons

● The number of protons is the atomic number
● All atoms of the same element must have the same number of
protons

Atom Charges ● Each proton has a mass of +1 amu (atomic mass unit) and a
charge of +1
● Each neutron has a mass of +1 amu and a charge of 0
● Each electron has a mass of +0 amu and a charge of -1
● A neutral atom must have the number of protons equal neutrons
● Atomic mass is the number of protons+neutrons

Ions ● Ions are atoms that have more or less electrons that generate an
electric charge
● More electrons result in a negative charge
● Less electrons result in a positive charge
● Negative ions are called anions
● Positive ions are called cations
● Charge is also called oxidation state
● Atoms form ions to achieve stability

Isotope ● An Isotope is an atom that has the same number of protons as

another atom of the same element but has a different number of
neutrons
● This means isotopes of the same element have different masses
● Some isotopes are radioactive; many are not
● Can be written in two ways:
○ 126C or C - 12
● Bottom number is protons, neutrons is 6, top number is
atomic mass

Average atomic ● Mass number is the atomic mass of only one kind of isotope of an
mass element
● Report the atomic mass as a weighted average
● Average atomic mass = Σ (mass of isotope x relative abundance*)
● *percent of each isotope of an element
● Relative/natural abundance is the amount of isotopes of an
element naturally found on the planet

RADIOACTIVITY AND HALF-LIFE

Alpha Decay Parent nucleus (unstable element) splits into a daughter nucleus (stable
element) and an alpha radiation (byproduct)
Components of An atom is composed of electrons (e) orbiting a nucleus. A nucleus is
an Atom made of protons (p) and neutrons (n), is extremely small. Atoms are mostly
empty space

Behavior of Completely spontaneous. Occurs when unstable nuclei decay into a stable
Radioactive atom.
Decay

Three (+ one) 1. Alpha particle (use the symbol α)

Products of a. Does not have electrons
Decay b. Least deadly, slowest
2. Beta particle (symbol β)
3. Gamma ray (symbol γ)
a. Pure radiation
b. Has no charge and mass
c. Most deadly, fastest
4. A less common way is positron emission, where positrons have no
mass and have a positive charge. Antiparticle of a beta particle

Definition of The process by which an atomic nucleus of an unstable atom loses energy
Radioactive by emitting ionizing particles (ionizing radiation). The only way to change
Decay the identity of an atom is through nuclear processes

Alpha Particles ● Made of 2 protons and 2 neutrons

● Has a charge of +2, mass of 4
● Written as 42𝛂
● Relatively slow and heavy
● Low penetrating power, can be stopped with a sheet of paper

Beta Particles ● Charge of -1, mass of 1/2000th of a proton. They are the same as
an electron
● Written as 𝛃-1 or e-1
● Fast and light
● Medium penetrating power, stopped by a sheet of aluminum or
 plastics like perspex

Gamma Rays ● Gamma rays are waves, not particles

● Have no mass and no charge (sometimes written as 0γ)
0

● High penetrating power; reduced significantly by a thick sheet of

metal such as lead, or concrete
● Do not directly ionise other atoms, although it may cause atoms to
emit other particles which will then cause ionisation
● Strictly speaking, gamma emission isn’t ‘radioactive decay’ because
it doesn’t change the state of the nucleus; it just carries away some
energy

Positron ● Written as 01e

● No mass, positive charge

Half-Life Half-life (t1/2) is the amount of time it takes a radioactive substance to lose
half its mass.

IMPORTANT Bold = important

MEN Bold Underline = very important

Democritus ● Lived around 370 BC

● Greek Philosopher
● Believed the universe was made of tiny “uncuttable” particles
● Coined the term atomos
● First to hypothesize the atom, thought it was a tiny hard sphere,
indivisible and indestructible

Dalton ● Dalton created the first Atomic Theory around 1803

● Believed that atoms of a given element are identical
● Came up with Billiard Ball model
1. All elements are composed of tiny particles called atoms
2. Atoms of the same element are the same
3. Atoms of different elements can physically mix together or
can chemically combine in simple whole number ratios to
form compounds
4. Chemical reactions occur when atoms separate, are joined,
or are rearranged; Atoms of one element are never changed
into atoms of another element

Dmitri ● Created the first Periodic Table in 1869

Mendeleev ● Table was arranged by atomic mass
● Properties of elements are periodic (or in trends)

JJ Thomson ● Discovered electrons in 1897

● Used cathode ray tube in his discovery
● Created the “plum pudding model”
 ● Electrons weigh 1/1840 of a proton

Robert Millika ● An American physicist in the year 1909

● Carried out the Oil drop experiment to determine the charge and
the mass carried by an electron

Ernest ● Performed the gold foil experiment in the year 1911 to give a
Rutherford nuclear model of an atom
● Atom has a nucleus
● Protons in nucleus have positive charge
● Atoms are mostly empty space

Henry Moseley ● Sorted the Periodic Table by atomic number in 1914

Max Planck ● Theorized that energy is quantized absorbed in discrete amounts in

1918
● Won a Nobel Prize for originating Quantum Theory

Niels Bohr ● Created a model of the atom in 1922 with electrons moving around
the nucleus in fixed orbits
● His electron model was called the “Planetary” model

Louis deBroglie ● Suggested that all matter has wave properties in 1923

Werner ● Came up with Uncertainty principle in 1927

Heisenberg ● The principle states that a particle’s position, energy, and time can
never be precisely known at the same time

James ● Discovered the neutron in 1932

Chadwick

ELECTRIC CONFIGURATION
Electron ● Electrons in atoms are organized in increasing energy level order.
Configuration Periods are known as Principal energy levels
● Principal energy levels have sublevels. Sublevels have orbitals
● Each orbital holds 2 electrons
● This electron process is called electron configuration and relates to
the regions of the periodic table
● Electron configuration determines the reactivity of an element
● D-block always starts one level down from the others because of
the energy difference
Orbitals ● Have 3 dimensional shapes

Principal Energy ● Principal energy level for the s and p blocks is the same as the
Period numbers
● The Principal energy level for the d-block is one less than the
Period number
● The Principal energy level for the f block is two less than the Period
number

Aufbau Principle Fill electrons in increasing order

Pauli exclusion An orbit can hold up to 2 electrons and they must be of opposite spin.
principle When filling sublevels with multiple orbitals (p, d, and f), spin is up for the
 first electron in the orbital and down for the second

Hund’s rule When filling sublevels with multiple orbitals (p, d, and f) leave the most
unpaired electrons (spread out before pairing up)

Example (with Electron Configuration: 1s22s22p63s23p4

sulfur)
Orbital Disagram of Sulfur: (↑↓)|(↑↓)|(↑↓)(↑↓)(↑↓)|(↑↓)|(↑↓)(↑)(↑)
1s |2s | 2p | 3s | 3p

Noble Gas Shorthand: [Ne] 3s23p4

Bohr Configuration (add up number of electrons in each level): 2-8-6

Bohr Diagram: Draw a nucleus with 3 rings (because there are 3 levels)
with 2 electrons on the first, 8 on the second, and 6 on the third.

Electron Configuration: 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d2

Orbital Diagram: (↑↓)|(↑↓)|(↑↓)(↑↓)(↑↓)|(↑↓)|(↑↓)(↑↓)(↑↓)|(↑↓)| (↑)(↑)()()()

1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d

Example (with Bohr Configuration: 2-8-10-2

titanium)

Bohr Diagram:

Noble Gas Shorthand: [Ar] 4s23d2

Valence electrons

Configuration of Electron configuration for ions is written in a similar way as the neutral
Ions atom

Emission The spectrum of frequencies of electromagnetic radiation when the

spectrum element’s excited electrons are returned to a lower energy state. Each
element's emission spectrum is unique, therefore the emission spectra of
an element can be used to identify it.
Order of which
subshells are
filled with
electrons

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PERIODIC TABLE

Arrangement of ● Arranged by atomic number

the Table ● Element identified by chemical symbol
● A row is called a period
● A column is called a group or family
● Table is divided into blocks

Measurement of ● Atomic mass is measured in g/mole

Atom ● A mole is 6.023 * 1023 atoms/particles (Avogadro’s number)

Periodic Law States that when elements are arranged in order of increasing atomic
numbers, their physical and chemical properties show a periodic property

Blocks ● s, p, d, and f blocks

● Blocks of the periodic table where certain sublevels in the electron
shells are being filled
● An element's location on the periodic table tells you its electron
configuration

Metals Elements that are usually solids at room temperature. Most metals are
metals. The most reactive metals are in the lower left corner of the table.
The most reactive metal is Francium

Low electronegativity and ionization energy. Lose electrons to become

cations (positive energy). Cations are smaller than their neutral
counterparts.
Non-Metals Elements in the upper right corner of the periodic table. Their chemical and
physical properties are different from metals. The most reactive
(electronegative) non-metal is fluorine (upper right corner of the non-metal
portion of the table).

Physical ● Luster (shininess)

Properties of ● Good conductor of heat and electricity
Metals ● High density (heavy for its size)
● High melting point
● Ductile (most metals can be drawn out into thin wires)
● Malleable (most metals can be hammered into thin sheets)

Chemical ● Easily lose electrons to form positive ions

Properties of ● Corrode easily
Metals ● Hydrogen gas, H2, can be made in the laboratory by the reaction of
a metal with a non oxidizing acid
○ Mg + 2HCl -> MgCl2 + H2

Physical ● No luster (dull appearance)

Properties of ● Poor conductor of heat and electricity
Nonmetals ● Brittle (breaks easily)
● Not ductile
● Not malleable
● Low density Low melting point

Chemical ● Tend to gain electrons to form negative ions (this is called

Properties of electronegativity)
Nonmetals ● Electronegativity decreases left to right
● High electronegativity and ionization energy. Gain electrons to
become anions (negative ions).

Metalloids ● B, Si, Ge, As, Sb, Te, Po, At

(semimetals) ● Solids
● Shiny or dull
● Ductile
● Malleable
● Conduct heat better than non-metals, not as good as metals

Periodic ● Chemical behavior of an element is determined by its electron

Patterns configuration
● Energy levels are quantized so roughly corresponds to layers of
electrons around the nucleus
● The shell is all the electrons with the same value of n
○ N is the principle energy level
● Each period begins with a new outer electron shell
● Each period ends with a completely filled outer shell that has the
maximum number of electrons for that shell
● The number identifying the A families identifies the number of
electrons in the outer shell (valence electrons), except helium
○ Can still determine this with other numbering systems
● Valence electrons are responsible for chemical reactions
 ● Group A elements are called representative elements
● Group B elements are called transition elements
● Elements with the same group have similar chemical properties

Four important ● Group 1: Alkali metals

groups of the ● Group 2: Alkaline earth metals
Periodic Table ● Group 17: Halogens
● Group 18: Noble gasses

Chemical ● Alkali metals are called so because they react with water to form an
Groups alkaline solution
(Families) ● Alkaline earth metals are called so because they are reactive, but
not as much so as alkali metals
○ Soft metals like earth
● Halogens only need one electron to fill their shell, very reactive
● Noble gasses have fully filled shells, non-reactive

Alkali metals ● Soft

● Chemistry is characterized by loss of one electron
○ M -> M+ + e--
● Combine directly with most nonmetals
○ 2Na + Cl2 -> 2NaCl
● React with water to form MOH and H2
○ 2Na + 2H2O -> 2NaOH + H2
● Reaction with oxygen gives oxides (Li), peroxides (Na, K, Rb, Cs),
and superoxides (K, Rb, Cs)

Alkaline earth ● Beryllium

metals ● Magnesium
● Calcium
● Strontium
● Barium

Halogens ● Fluorine
● Chlorine
● Bromine
● Iodine

Noble gasses ● Helium

● Neon
● Argon
● Krypton
● Xenon

Other groups ● Group 13: Boron group

● Group 14: Carbon group
● Group 15: Nitrogen group
● Group 16: Oxygen group

Ions ● When an atom gains or loses an electron it becomes an ion

● Cation is an atom that has lost one or more electrons and therefore
 has a positive charge
● Anion is an atom that has gained one or more electrons and
therefore has a negative charge

● Elements with 1, 2, or 3 valence electrons (groups 1, 2, and 13)

tend to lose electrons to fill their outer shell and become cations
○ Metals lose electrons
● Elements with 5 or 7 valence electrons (groups 15 to 17) tend to
gain electrons to fill their outer shell to become anions
○ Nonmetals gain electrons
● Semimetals occur at the dividing line between metals and
nonmetals

Oxidation state ● Defined as the charge an element produces when it turns into an
ion
● Group 1: oxidation state of +1
● Group 2: +2
● Group 13: +3
● Group 14: +/- 4
● Group 15: -3
● Group 16: -2
● Group 17: -1

D-Block: ● Elements on periodic table in groups 3-12

Transition ● Each metal has d-electrons
elements ● These elements make the transition from metals to nonmetals
● Exhibit smaller variation from row-to-row than other blocks
● Beautiful colors

F-Block ● Inner transition metals

● Electrons are being added to f orbitals
● Electrons are being added two shells below the valence shell
● Consequently, very slight variations of properties from one element
to another

Periodic ● Atomic radius decreases left to right and increases top to bottom
Properties of the ● Electronegativity increases left to right and decreases top to bottom
Periodic Table ● Ionization increases left to right and decreases top to bottom
● Shielding constant within a given period and increases top to
bottom

Atomic radius ● Atomic radius is the measure of the distance between nucleus of
two identical atoms of an element
● Left to right atomic charge increase, so outer electrons feel a
stronger effective nuclear charge and are pulled in closer to the
nucleus
● Atomic radius decreases left to right and increases from top to
bottom within given groups

Ionic radius ● Cations are always smaller than their neutral atoms
● Anions are larger than their neutral atoms
Electronegativity ● Measure of attraction of an atom for electrons in a chemical bond
● Measured on the Pauling scale
● Fluorine is the most electronegative element
● Cesium and francium are the least electronegative element
● Electronegativity increases from left to right across periods and
decreases from top to bottom within groups

First ionization ● The minimum amount of energy required to remove the most
energy (IE1) loosely held electron from an isolated neutral gaseous atom to form
1+ ion
● Ionization energies generally increase from left to right across a
period and decreases from top to bottom of a given group

Second ● Amount of energy required to remove the second electron from a

ionization gaseous +1 ion
energy (IE2) ● Ion+ + energy -> ion2+ + e--
● Atoms can have 3rd, 4th, etc ionization energy

Shielding effect ● The electron shielding effect is when core electrons block valence
electrons from the nuclear charge of the nucleus
● Increases from top to bottom, constant within a period

BONDING

Number of Depends on the group number

valence
electrons

Lewis dots Represents the outermost (valence) electrons.

Octet Rule Elements tend to gain or lose electrons to attain the electron configuration
of a noble gas
Ions An atom with a different number of protons and electrons. A molecule or
atom with a charge

Ionic compound ● Compounds composed of cations and anions.

● Contains a metal and a nonmetal.
● Overall electrically neutral.
● Electrons are transferred from the metal to the nonmetal.
● Elements with high electronegativity difference form ionic bonds.
● Ionic compounds do not form molecules, they form crystal lattice
structures.

Ionic bond The strong electrostatic forces between positive and negative charges that
hold ions together in a compound.

Formula unit The lowest whole-number ratio of ions in an ionic compound.

Ionic compounds do not form molecules. They form large crystal lattice
structures, sometimes with millions of ions.
● Their chemical formulas are represented empirically - in the lowest
whole-number ratio.
Covalent bond ● Involved sharing of electrons between two nonmetal atoms.
● Covalent compounds form molecules containing two or more
nonmetal atoms.

Chemical Shows types of atoms and the number of atoms in the smallest
formula representative unit of a substance.

Determining the Metals and nonmetals react to form neutral compounds.

empirical
formula for an For example, if Al3+ combines with Cl-, you need 3 Cl- ions for each Al3+ to
ionic compound form a neutral compound. Al3+ + 3 Cl- makes the compound AlCl3.

Lewis structure:

Properties of Mostly:
ionic ● Crystalline solids at room temperature
compounds ● High melting points
● Can conduct electrical current with (l) or (aq)

Metallic bonding ● Valence electrons can be modeled as a “sea of electrons” around

positively charged metal ion cores
● Attractive force between the positive ion and the negative electrons
forms a very strong metallic bond

OIL RIG
Oxidation is loss of elections
Reduction is gain of electrons
Alloy Homogenous mixture of elements, at least one is a metal

Ex: brass and steel

Why do bonds To achieve stability

form?

Bond strength ● Correlates to melting point. Stronger bond = higher melting point
● Weakest: covalent (two or more nonmetals sharing electrons)
● Strong: ionic (a metal atom transferring electrons to a nonmetal
atom)
● Strongest: metallic (positive metal ions with free-floating valence
electrons)

Determining the Look at the first element

kind of bond ● If the first element is a metal, it is ionic
● If the first metal is a nonmetal, it is covalent
Ex:
NaCl is ionic (Na is a metal), CO2 is covalent (C is a nonmetal)

Acids ● Electrolyzed

IONIC COMPOUND

Anticipatory Set ● If you were given positive ion (cation) Na+ and a negative ion
(anion) O2-, you would create a neutral compound, Na2O by
balancing their charges

Chemical ● There are two basic types of compounds; ionic and covalent
Nomenclature ● Ionic compounds contain metal atoms first and then a nonmetal
(Naming atom or a polyatomic ion in second position (ex. NaCl and NaNO3)
compounds) ● Covalent compounds contain two or more nonmetal atoms (ex. CH4
and C6H12O6)
● Nonmetals can have different oxidation states when they are in
COVALENT compounds

Naming Ions ● Cations with only 1 oxidation state is the name of the metal
● The name of anions is the root element name, but the ending is
changed to -ide
○ In Ionic Compounds, nonmetals are-
■ Group 15 (5a): -3
■ Group 16 (6a): -2
■ Group 17 (7a): -1
● Binary Ionic Compounds only consist of 2 elements; when naming
binary ionic compounds containing cations with single oxidation
state, just name the cation first and then the anion
Polyatomic Ions ● Polyatomic ions are composed of more than one atom
● These atoms are covalently bonded, but have an overall charge, so
will bond with other ions
● The -ite ions have 1 less O than the -ate

List of -ate:
Polyatomic ● Nitrate (NO3-)
Ions ● Carbonate (CO32-)
● Sulfate (SO42-)
● Phosphate (PO43-)
● Chlorate (ClO3-)
● Bicarbonate (HCO3-)
● Perchlorate (CIO4-)
● Chlorate (ClO3-) (same as clam)
● Oxalate (C2O42-)
● Permanganate (MnO4-)
● Dichromate (CrO72-)
● Chromate (CrO42-)
● Acetate (C2H3O2-)
-ite:
● Nitrite (NO2-)
● Sulfite (SO32-)
● Phosphite (PO33-)
● Chlorite (CIO2-)
● Hypochlorite (CIO2)
-ide:
● Hydroxide (OH-)
● Cyanide (CN-)
-ium:
● Ammonium (NH4+) (it is also ionic)

For -ate:
NICK the CAMEL ate CLAMS for SUPPER in PHOENIX
Nick - nitrate
Camel - carbonate
Clam - chlorate
Supper - Sulfate
Phoenix - phosphate

Compounds with ● Same as binary compounds, just use parentheses when you need
polyatomic ions more than 1 polyatomic ion
Ionic ● Write the name of the transition metal cation using the Roman
compounds numeral to indicate the charge on the cation
containing ● Write the name of the anion or polyatomic ion in the formula
transition metals ● Use parenthesis for more than one polyatomic ion in the formula

-ide/-ate/-ite -ide is normally used for nonmetal compounds

-ate and -ite are used for polyatomic ions of oxygen. -ate is also used for
the ion that has the largest number of oxygen atoms

WRITING BONDING FORMULAS

Writing formulas ● Write the symbol of the cation and the anion
for Binary Ionic ● Add more cation or anion as needed to balance the overall charges
Compounds to form a neutral compound
Writing Ionic ● Same as binary compounds
formulas with ● Remember to use parentheses when you need more than 1
polyatomic ions polyatomic ion

Naming and writing formulas for binary molecular covalent compounds

Use prefixes to These compounds are still neutral! Since covalent compounds contain all
tell how many of nonmetal atoms their names will end in -ide. Remember to use prefixes
each element, only for covalent compounds
except don’t
start a 1: mono-
compound name 2: di-
with mono-. 3: tri-
4: tetra-
5: penta-
6: hexa-
7: hepta-
8: octa-
9: nona-
10: deca-

Examples:
N2O4 - Dinitrogen tetroxide
SO2 - Sulfur dioxide
P2O5 - Diphosphorus pentoxide
XeF6 - Xenon hexafluoride
Diphosphorus trisulfide -

Naming and ● Acids start with H

writing formulas ● Acids containing nonmetals start with hydro and end with -ic. Acids
for acids and containing -ate polyatomic ions end with -ic and ones containing -
bases ite ends with -ous.
● Ex:
○ (-ide) Chloride - hydro+stem+ic - Hydrochloric Acid, HCl
○ (-ate) Nitrate - stem+ic - Nitric Acid, HNO3
○ (-ite) Nitrite - stem+ous - Nitrous Acid, HCO2

● Bases are named the same way as other ionic compounds

● Bases consist of a metal or ammonium and hydroxide ion(s)
● Ex:
○ NaOH
○ Fe(OH)3
○ NH4OH

Tricks for 1) My ride is hydraulic (Binary Acids)

Naming Acids a) Example: HBr- Hydrobromic acid
2) I -ate something icky (Non binary -ate ions)
a) Example: H2SO4 - sulfuric acid
3) Sprite is delicious (Non binary -ite ions)
a) Example: H2SO3 - sulfurous acid
REDOX

Oxidation Basic Rules:

Numbers ● Any atom in its elemental form (Na, O2, Mg, Cl2) has an oxidation
number of zero
● For monoatomic atoms, the oxidation number equals the ion’s
charge
● For polyatomic ions, the sum of the constituents’ atoms’ oxidation
numbers is equal to the charge of the ion
● For neutral compounds the sum of the constituents’ atoms’
oxidation numbers is equal to zero

Specific rules: Element(s) - Oxidation number - Exceptions

● Group 1 - +1 - None
● Group 2 - +2 - None
● F (fluorine) - -1 - None
● H (with metals and B) - -1 - None
● H (with nonmetals) - +1 - None
● O - -2 - -1 in peroxides or with F (fluorine)
● Halogens - -2 - with oxygen or halogens higher in column

Oxidation state of nonmetal atoms can be found from the periodic table
where they are monatomic (-ide). But in covalent compounds, nonmetals
can have different oxidation #.

OIL RIG Oxidation Is Losing electrons, Reduction Is Gaining electrons

Oxidation To Identify redox reactions:

Reduction
(redox) reactions Step 1: Assign oxidation # to all atoms in every reactant and product

Step 2: See if the oxidation number of any of the elements changed from
the reactant side to the product side. If they did, it is a redox reaction

Single replacement reactions are always redox

Combustion reactions are always redox
Synthesis and decomposition are sometimes redox
Double replacement (including acid/base) are never redox
Balancing
Oxidation
reduction
reactions

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

Organic ● Must contain carbon and hydrogen

Compounds ● Some also contain nitrogen, oxygen, sulfur, phosphorous, and
halogens

Bonding ● Carbon can form bonds with up to four atoms

characteristics of ● This property allows it to be one of the most diverse shaped and
carbon sized molecules
● CH4 is the simplest hydrocarbon

Carbon based ● It is tetravalent (four valence electrons, this allows for four
compounds bonds)
● Carbon can form an “octet” with other carbon atoms or atoms of
other elements

Organic structures ● Characteristics result in the formation of a large variety of

structures such as protein, DNA, and amino acids
 ● Other carbon based compounds include simple hydrocarbons,
small complex molecules with functional groups, complex
biomolecules, and polymer molecules

Functional groups ● Specific groups of atoms or bonds found within a molecule that
are involved in the characteristic chemical reactions of those
molecules

Bonding in ● Can have single, double, or triple bonds

hydrocarbons ● Flexibility in hydrocarbons is due to single bonds. Double and
triple bonds introduce rigidity and isomers to the molecule

Hydrocarbons ● Organic compounds containing only carbon and hydrogen

atoms are called hydrocarbons
● Alkanes, alkenes, and alkynes are simplest forms of
hydrocarbon compounds
● Byproducts of of petrochemicals, meaning byproducts of
petroleum
- Alkanes contain saturated carbon atoms meaning all single
bonded carbon atoms
 - Alkenes contain unsaturated carbon atoms and have at least
one double bond between two carbon atoms in the molecule
- Alkynes contain unsaturated carbon atoms and have at least
triple bond between two carbon atoms in a molecule

Saturation ● Affects structure of carbon compounds

● A saturated hydrocarbon contains all single bonds between
carbon atoms, holding the maximum number of hydrogens
possible
● An unsaturated hydrocarbon has at least one double or triple
bond
● Saturation or carbon molecules in an organic compound mean
converting the double or triple bond into single bonds to make
the molecule more flexible and less reactive

Petrochemicals Contain hydrocarbons, including propane, butane, and octane

Plastics Plastics that are formed from petrochemicals are organic compounds
that consist of long carbon chains

Effect of structure ● Close relationship between structure and function of organic

on the properties of molecules
organic molecules ● Phospholipid bilayer structure of a cell is a result of the polar
head and nonpolar tail of the phospholipid molecule

Common organic ● Vitamin C

pharmaceuticals ● Insulin
● Aspirin (acetylsalicyclic acid)

Polymers and Small molecules called monomers bond to make large molecules called
polymerization polymers that have combinations with repetitive subunits

Natural polymers Includes proteins and nucleic acids

Ex:
● DNA
● RNA
● Cellulose

Synthetic polymers Human made (synthetic).

Ex:
● Polyethylene
● Nylon
● Rayon
 ● Spandex
● Mylar
● Teflon
● Kevlar

MOLECULAR GEOMETRY

Types of shapes ● Bent (group 16, H2O)

● Linear (usually 2 atoms, H2, CHl, CO2)
● Trigonal planar (group 13, BH3)
● Trigonal pyramidal (group 15, NH3)
● Tetrahedral (group 14, CH4)

Bonding types Ionic:

● Electron transfer
● Strong bond due to strong electrostatic attraction between +
(positive) and - (negative) ions
● Metals and nonmetals
Covalent:
● Electron sharing
● Weaker bond
● Between 2 or more nonmetals
● Can be single, double, or triple

Molecular formula Specifies the actual number of atoms in each element in a molecule

Ex:
Glucose is C6H12O6

Structural formula Shows the arrangement of the atoms within a molecule; shows which
atoms are bonded to which and whether single, double, or triple bonds
are used

Empirical formula The chemical formula that gives the simplest (lowest) whole-number
ratio of atoms in a compound.
 Ex:
C6H12O6 becomes CH2O

Other types of Space-filling

models:

Ball-and-stick

Perspective

Lewis structures Gives atomic connectivity: they tell us which atoms are physically
connected to other atoms. A “dot” represents a valence electron. The
element is surrounded by the same number of dots as it has valence
electrons.
Octet rule Main goal: make an octet around the element
States that while forming covalent bonds in compounds to achieve
electron configuration of noble gasses

Exceptions:
Group 1 - 2 electrons around them
Group 2 - 4
Group 13 - 6

Polarity ● Can have polar or nonpolar molecules

● A polar molecule has a positive pole and a negative pole that is
caused by a difference in electronegativity
● Polarity gives molecules different properties
● Molecular shape determines polarity for small molecules
● A molecule that contains a polar bond is not necessary a polar
molecule
● When determining molecular polarity, it is important to consider
the polar bonds and shape of the molecule
● Polarity of the trigonal planar (group 13) and tetrahedral (group
14) depends on attachments
● Trigonal pyramid (group 15) and bent (group 16) are always
polar

Molecular bond
angle

Steps for drawing 1. Add up total valence electrons

Lewis structure of 2. Draw an atom in the center and draw all other atoms evenly
molecules spaced around. If only two atoms draw them next to each other
3. Connect atoms by single bonds. Each bond represents 2
electrons
4. Subtract electrons in bonds from total electrons
5. Use any remaining electrons to give the atoms their octet
6. If there are any electrons left, put them in lone pairs around the
central atom (except group 14 like carbon which cannot have
have lone pairs of electrons usually)
 7. If necessary, make double or triple bonds
8. Check is all octets are filled

Atoms that go in the center are normally the least electronegative

element

Expanded octet May have more than 8 valence electrons around it, group 15

Important!! All hydrocarbons are non-polar

STATES OF MATTER AND INTERMOLECULAR FORCES

State and energy Entropy (disorder) increases from solid to liquid to gas to plasma.
effect on entropy

Entropy Compensation that the system or matter pays for disorder. How much
energy is lost or preserved when a system goes through a phase
change.

Intermolecular Intermolecular forces (forces between molecules) affect how easily a

forces and heating substance melts and boils. This is reflected in the heating curve of a
curve substance.

Types of Three main types:

intermolecular ● Dipole-dipole force
forces ● Hydrogen bonding (hydrogen connected directly to bond)
● London dispersion force (Van der Waals forces)

Intermolecular forces are not the same as intramolecular forces.

Intermolecular forces are attractive forces between molecules.
Intramolecular forces are bonds between atoms that hold the molecules
together (ionic bonds, covalent bonds, metallic bonds)

Nonvolatile liquids Nonvolatile liquids have low vapor pressures, strong intermolecular
forces, and high boiling points
Temperature,
Pressure, and
Volume affect state

Dipole-dipole forces

Definition: Attractive forces between the positive end of one polar

molecule and the negative end of another polar molecule

Facts/Characteristics: only occurs in Polar covalent substances

Example: polar covalent molecules

Non-example: nonpolar covalent molecules, ionic compounds

Hydrogen bonding

Definition: An electrostatic attraction between a hydrogen atom in one

polar molecule and a small electronegative atom (O, N, F) in another
molecule (can be the same or a different polar molecule)

Facts/Characteristics: H-Bonding is the strongest IM force. Occurs in

 H2O and causes its high surface tension, high boiling point, and low
vapor pressure. It is a special type of dipole-dipole force

Examples: polar covalent molecules w/H and either F, O, N

Non-examples: polar covalent molecules that do not meet the definition,

covalent molecules and ionic compounds

Volatile liquids ● High vapor pressures

● Weak intermolecular forces
● Low boiling points

London Dispersion
Forces (also
calledVan der
Waals forces)

Definition: A temporary attractive force that results when the electrons

in two adjacent atoms form temporary dipoles. This force is sometimes
called an induced dipole-induced dipole attraction

Facts/Characteristics: Also called Van der Waals forces or dispersion

forces. All covalent substances have them, but it is the only force in
nonpolar substances. London force is stronger if you have more
atoms/molecules

Examples: Polar and nonpolar (ALL COVALENT) substances

Non-examples: Ionic compounds

Vapor pressure The pressure of the vapor found directly above a liquid

Boiling point When the vapor pressure equals the atmospheric pressure, a liquid
boils. Normal boiling point for liquids is 101.3 kPa (about 1 atm or 760
mmHg)

Atmospheric pressure results from the collisions of atoms and

molecules in air with objects. Common unit of pressure is pascal (Pa).
Vapor pressure
diagram

● The strength of intermolecular forces is reflected in the vapor

pressure diagram
● Substances with weaker intermolecular forces have lower
boiling points
● Substances with stronger intermolecular forces have higher
boiling points

Pressure effects on A liq at uids boiling point and freezing point are affected by changes in
freezing point and atmospheric pressure. As atmospheric pressure increases, boiling point
boiling point increases and vice versa

Solids ● The shape of a crystal reflects the arrangement of the particles

within the solid
● The smallest group of particles within a crystal that retains the
geometric shape of the crystal is called a unit cell
● Allotropes are two or more different molecular forms of the
same element in the same physical state

● Common allotropes of carbon are diamond, fullerene, and

graphite
● Some other examples of elements that have allotropes are
sulfur and phosphorous
● Non-crystalline or amorphous solids such as glass lack
ordered internal structure

TYPES OF REACTIONS
Synthesis or A + B -> C, A + B + C -> D
Combination
Ex:
2Na + Cl2 -> 2NaCl

Decomposition A -> B + C

Ex:
2NI3 -> N2 +3I2

Single A + BX -> AX + B
Replacement
(displacement) Ex:
(girlfriend stealing) Cu + 2AgNO3 -> Cu(NO3)2 + 2Ag

Only happens when metal replaces another metal

Double AX + BY -> AY + BX
Replacement
(displacement) Ex:
(girlfriend HgCl2(aq) + 2NaI(aq) -> HgI2(s) + 2NaCl(aq)
swapping)
3 reasons a DR reactions will go to completion:
1. A precipitate (solid) is formed
2. A gas is formed
3. It is an acid/base reaction

Acid/Base Acid/base reactions are a special type of double replacement reaction.

They also are known as neutralization reactions

Acid + base -> salt + water

HA + MOH -> MA + H2O

Combustion CxHyOz + O2 -> CO2 + H2O

C’s, H’s, and sometimes O’s plus oxygen yields carbon dioxide and
water.

Energy release All reactions can either absorb or release energy.

A reaction that releases energy is called exothermic

 A reaction that absorbs energy is called endothermic

How to tell is a 1. Bubbles of gas appear

chemical reaction 2. Precipitate occurs
has occurred 3. Color change occurs
4. Temperature changes
5. Light is emitted
6. Change in smell or taste

How to tell if double 1. Precipitate is formed

replacement occurs 2. Gas is formed
3. Acid/base reaction has occurred

Solubility 1. For double replacement reaction, check products for solubility

table/chart using a solubility table or a chart with solubility rules
2. If one of the two products of a double replacement reaction is
insoluble (precipitate), then it will go to completion

Solubility Table
Solubility Rules

`MOLE MASS AND VOLUME

Mole ● Written as mole or mol

● Unit of count
● Equals 6.02 * 1023 units of measure, being atoms, molecules, or
other units (particles)
● Based on C-12
● Exactly 12 grams of C-12 has exactly 6.02 x 1023 atoms
● The mass of one mole of an element is whatever ts atomic mass
is according to the periodic table
● 1 mole of Calcium is 40 grams of calcium, which is 6.02 * 1023
atoms of calcium

Mole (LITERS) ● In terms of gasses, one mole is equivalent to 22.4 L at standard

temperature and pressure
● Standard temperature is 0 ℃ and standard pressure is 1 atm

ex. 1 mole He (g) = 22.4 L = 6.02 x 1023 atoms of He = 4 g

Molar Mass (Gram ● Molar mass is the mass of one mole of an element or compound
per Mole) ● Unit of Molar mass is g/mole
● For example, molar mass of Sodium is about 23 g/mole
● Molar mass of an element can be found on the periodic table
● The molar mass of a compound is calculated by adding the
molar masses of all the atoms of an element in the compound

Calculating molar ● Add up the masses of all the atoms of all the elements in the
mass compound
● Remember to distribute the subscripts on the outside of the
parentheses to all the subscripts of all the elements within the
parentheses

Calculating percent Calculate the molar mass of the compound, next divide the mass of
composition each elements total by the total molar mass.
(percent by mass)

Mole-mass and ● Sometimes necessary to convert units between moles and:

mole-volume ○ Particles (atoms or molecules)
relationships ○ Grams
 ○ Liters
● Conversion factors:
● 6.02 * 1023 particles in 1 mole
● Grams use molar mass (grams per mole)
● Liters use 22.4L for one mole

If the unit is given in moles then multiply

If your unit is in some other unit divide

EMPIRICAL AND MOLECULAR FORMULA

Empirical formula Gives the lowest whole number ratio of elements in a compound

Ex:
C2H2 = CH
Na2SO4 = same

How to do When we do percent by mass (percent composition), we start by taking

empirical formula the subscripts and multiplying by the molar mass of each element in a
compound.

To do an empirical formula, work backwards. Take the mass or a

percent and divide by the molar mass. This will give the mole ratio of
elements which will turn into subscripts.

If the number is too far to round then multiply each solution by the same
factor to get the lowest whole number possible
STOICHIOMETRY

Stoichiometry First discovered by Jeremias Richter, a German chemist. It was Richter

who coined the term stoichiometry, derived from stoikheion, Greek for
“element” and metron, meaning

Balanced chemical Like a recipe

equations

Mole ratio Used to predict how much product can be formed or how much of a
reactant will be used

Limiting reactant The reactant that you run out of first

To find the limiting reactant, get your reactant quantities in moles then
divide each by its coefficient. The smallest one is the limiting reactant.
You can also do 2 separate stoichiometry problems, where the smallest
amount of product is the limiting factor.

Theoretical yield to Percent yield = actual yield/theoretical yield * 100

percent yield

LIMITING REACTANT AND PERCENT YIELD

Limiting reactant ● The one that you run out first

● Controls the amount of product made in the reaction
● Excess reactant is one you have excess of

Steps in finding a 1. If amounts of reactants are not given in moles, convert their
limiting reactant amount to moles. If the amount of a reactant is already in moles,
proceed to next step
2. Divide the amount in moles of each reactant you obtained in the
first step by its corresponding coefficient from the given reaction
3. Limiting reactant is the reactant to which the smallest answer
 from the second step belongs
4. After you find the limiting reactant, use its original given amount
to calculate the amount of product you are solving for using the
cross multiplication method of stoichiometry

Theoretical yield Maximum amount of a product a reaction can yield based on

calculations

Actual yield Amount of product made in the reaction. You are always given the
actual yield of the product you are dealing with. Keywords are
“produced”, “made”, “formed”

HEATING CURVE PHASE DIAGRAM

Kinetic Energy ● Energy of Motion

● Directly proportional to temperature
Absolute zero Lowest temperature theoretically possible (0K, 0 Kelvin), all subatomic
motion would stop

Heat/Energy Represented by q or Q. A system is part of the universe that you deal

with. The surrounding is everything else in the universe.

Units are:
● Calorie
● Joule

Joule/Calorie ● 1 J (joule) = .2390 cal

Conversion ● 4.184 J = 1 cal

Endothermic System gains and surrounding loses heat energy

Exothermic System loses and surrounding gains heat energy

Enthalpy ● Heat lost or absorbed by a reaction/system at a constant

pressure is called enthalpy (delta H)
● Calorimeter measures the heat flow in or out of the system
during a chemical or physical process at a constant pressure
(delta H = q)

Activation Energy Minimum energy required to turn reactants into products

Phase changes Phase diagram:
● Triple point is the point at a particular temperature and pressure
where all three phases of matter coexist
● Critical point is the point beyond which the distinction between
the liquid and gas phase cease to exist

Specific heat Amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of 1g of substance by

capacity 1C

Depends on the mass and the chemical composition of a substance.

Tells how much heat a substance can absorb or how much energy it
takes to heat a substance. Represented by C
 CH2O = 1 calorie/gramOC = 4.184 joule/gramOC

Calculating energy For one phase only: Q = m*C*ΔT

requirements M = mass
C = specific heat
ΔT = change in temperature
Q = energy/heat required

For two phases:

Melting/freezing: Q = m*Hfus
M = mass
Hfus = heat of fusion
Vaporization/condensation: Q = m*Hvap
M = mass
Hvap = heat of vaporization

NEW EQUILIBRIUM

Collision Theory ● For a reaction to occur, particles must collide with enough
energy to break bonds
● This is called activation energy
● A transitional structure forms from an effective collision and
remains while old bonds are broken and new bonds are formed
● This transitional structure is called an activated complex

Factors Affecting ● Reaction rate is the speed at which concentration of reactants

Reaction Rate or products is reduced
● Temperature
○ Increase temperature increase reaction rate
● Surface Area
○ Increase surface area increase rate of reaction
● Concentration
○ Increase concentration increase rate of reaction
● Catalyst
○ More catalyst increase rate of reaction

Why temperature Higher temperature results in increased kinetic energy which causes
affects reaction rate more collisions with enough power to overcome the activation energy
barrier

Why concentration More particles in the same amount of space results in greater
affects reaction rate frequency of collisions

Why surface area As particle size decreases, reaction rate increases. Smaller particle
affects reaction rate size results in more surface area exposed for reaction

Catalyst A substance that speeds up the rate of a reaction without being

consumed itself in the reaction (not a reactant nor product).
 It does this by decreasing the energy needed for the reaction to occur
(less activation energy). Remains unchanged after the reaction is
complete

Reversible Some reactions do not only go in one direction. Sometimes they are
Reactions reversible, which means that the conversion of reactants to products
and products to reactants may occur simultaneously. Marked by an
arrow facing two ways.

Equilibrium A state where the rate of forward reaction equals the rate of reverse
reaction.

Even though the rates of the reactions may be equal, the

concentrations of components on each side may not necessarily be
equal.
Henri Le Chatelier Studied how equilibrium position shifts as a result of changing
(1850-1936) conditions

Le Chatelier’s principle: If stress is applied to a system in equilibrium,

the system changes in a way that relieves the stress.
● Concentrations
● Temperature
● Pressure

Concentration (Le ● Adding reactant causes a shift right to get rid of excess reactant
Chatelier) and thus creates more product
● Removing reactant causes a shift to the left to generate more
reactant
● Adding product causes a shift to the left to get rid of the extra
product and thus creates more reactant
● Removing product causes a shift to the right to create more
product

Temperature (Le Exothermic

Chatelier) ● Heat is a product, so adding heat will cause a shift left. A
decrease in temperature will cause a shift right
Endothermic
● Heat is a reactant, so adding heat will cause a shift right. A
decrease in temperature will cause a shift left

Pressure (Le An increase in pressure will cause the direction of the reaction to shift
Chatelier) to produce the fewest number of moles of gas

Vice versa is true with decrease in pressure shifting towards side with
more moles of gas.
Entropy Measure of disorder in a system.

For example, gasses have more entropy than solids and liquids

● Measured in J/mol*K
● Represented by capital S

Law of Disorder ● Natural tendency is for systems to move to the direction of

maximum disorder
● Your room NEVER cleans itself (disorder to order)
● An increase in entropy favors spontaneous chemical reaction
(+ΔS)

Spontaneous vs ● Spontaneous reactions occur naturally without outside

Nonspontaneous intervention. Favor product formation, may or may not be fast
processes ○ Ice melting
○ Dissolving sugar
○ Rusting of iroin
● Nonspontaneous reactions do not favor product formation
○ CO2 being placed into the solution of a soft drink

Enthalpy and ● Enthalpy (H) and Entropy (S) are two drivers for every equation
Entropy ● Values work together to determine if a reaction is spontaneous
or not

Enthalpy ● Reaction tends to proceed in the direction that lowers the

energy of the system
● Less Enthalpy, exothermic

Entropy ● Reactions tend to proceed in the direction that increases the

disorder of the system
● More Entropy is more disorder
SOLUTIONS

Solutions ● Stable homogeneous mixtures, meaning they are the same

throughout
● Can be gaseous, like air, or metals blended as an alloy, but we
usually think of homogeneous liquid mixtures

Solute - substance being dissolved in the water

Solvent - primary ingredient of a solution; more of it in the solution
● When water is the solvent, it’s called an aqueous solution

Solubility ● Ability of one substance to dissolve into another at a given

temperature and pressure
● Maximum grams of solute that will dissolve in 100g of solvent
○ Varies with temperature and pressure
○ Based on saturated solution

Solvation ● Process of dissolving

● Insoluble means not able to dissolve

Solubility Rule “Like dissolves like”

Nonpolar dissolves nonpolar

Polar dissolves polar

Miscibility ● Miscible describes 2 or more liquids that dissolve into each

other in the proportion that you add them
○ Paint and paint thinner (both nonpolar)
● Immiscible describes 2 or more liquids that do not mix
○ Oil (nonpolar) and water (polar)

Saturated Solutions

Solubility ● Solids are more soluble at

○ High temperature
○ Exposed surfaces
● Gasses are more soluble at
○ Low temperatures
○ High pressures
○ Solubility of a gas increases as its partial pressure on the
liquids surface increases
Solubility Curve Shows the dependence of solubility on temperature

Dissociation ● Separation of ionic solids into aqueous ions

● When water is the solvent this is called hydration

Ionization ● Breaking apart of some polar molecules into aqueous ions

● Hydronium Ions are created when acids react with water

Conductivity ● Whether or not a solution contains solution contains charged

particles that are able to move
● Nonelectrolytes (covalent)
○ Remain intact when dissolved
○ 1 particle
● Electrolytes (ionic)
○ Dissociate into ions when dissolved
○ 2 or more particles
○ Strong are binary compounds and weak have polyatomic
ions involved
Types of solutions

Colligative property ● Property that depends on the concentration of solute particles,

not their identity

Freezing point ● Freezing point of a solution is lower than the FP of the pure
depression solvent

Boiling point ● Boiling point of a solution is higher than the BP of the pure
elevation solvent

Vapor Pressure ● When a solute is added to a solvent vapor pressure is lowered

MOLARITY

Formula Molarity (M) = moles of solute / liters of solution

M / 1 = mol / L

Dilution ● Preparation of a desired solution by adding water *solvent) to a

concentrated solution
● Moles of a solute remain the same, but concentration (molarity)
decreases
 M1V1 = M2V2

ACIDS AND BASES

Acids ● Compound that increases the number

of hydrogen ions when dissolved in
water

Properties:
● A substance that reacts with a base
● Characterized by their sour taste, low
pH, and the fact that they turn litmus
paper red
● Aqueous acids have a pH less than 7,
where an acid that has lower pH is
typically stronger
● Substances having the property of an
acid are said to be acidic
● Acids change the color of acid-base
indicators
● Reacts with metals such as calcium
and bases like sodium
● React with active metals to release
hydrogen
○ Zn(s) + H4SO4(aq) ->
ZnZO4(aq) + H2(g)
● Acids react with bases to produce
salts and water (neutralization)
○ HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) ->
NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
● Aqueous solutions of acids conduct
electric current (they are electrolytes)
Aqueous Solutions of Acids:
● Acids are molecular (covalent)
compounds that ionize in solution
○ HCO3 -> H+ + NO3-
○ HCl -> H+ + Cl-
 ○ H2SO4 -> 2H+ + SO42-

Base ● Any compound that increases the

number of hydroxide ions when
dissolved in water

Properties:
● Bases are characterized by bitter
taste, slippery feel, high pH, and the
fact that they turn litmus paper blue
● Bases change the color of acid-base
indicators
● Base is a substance that can accept
hydrogen ions (protons) or more
generally, donate a pair of valence
electrons
● A soluble base is referred to as an
alkali if it contains and releases
hydroxide ions (OH-) quantitatively
● Bases react with acids to produce
salts and water
● Aqueous solutions of bases conduct
electric current (they are electrolytes)

pH ● Measure of the hydronium

ion/hydrogen ion
● Measured on a scale of 1-14

Theories of Acids and Bases Arrhenius Theory

● Svante Arrhenius, Swedish chemist
(1859-1927)
● According to Arrhenius Theory, an
acid is a substance that produces or
increases the concentration of
hydrogen ions (H+) in solution
● According to Arrhenius theory, a base
is a substance that produces or
increases the concentration of

Bronsted-Lowry Theory
Strong and Weak Acids and Bases
Strength of Acids:
hydroxide ions (OH-) in solution
● According to the Bronsted-Lowry
theory, acids are molecules or ions
that are proton donors (donate H+
ions), whereas bases are molecules
or ions that are proton acceptors
(accept H+ ions)
● Bronsted-Lowry Acid-Base Reaction:
reaction in which protons are
transferred from the acid to the base
● Acids and bases dissociate in varying
degrees
● Strong acids or bases dissociate
completely. Weak acids or bases
dissociate partially. Nonelectrolytes do
not dissociate
● Strong acids ionize completely (100%)
in solution. Examples of strong acids
are sulfuric acid (H2SO4), hydrochloric
acid (HCl), and nitric acid (HNO3)
● Weak acids ionize only slightly (<1%)
and are weak electrolytes. An
example of a weak acid is acetic acid
(HC2H3O2)
● Strong acids/bases are simply those
acids or bases that completely ionize
in aqueous solutions. Example HCl,
HNO3, H2SO4, NaOH, KOH, are strong
acids and bases
MATH

Significant Figure 1) Any non-zero digit is significant

Rules 2) Leading zeros (ex. 0.0003) are never significant
3) Sandwiched zeros (ex. 406) are always significant
4) Trailing zeros (ex. 10,000 or 0.04200) are significant only if the
number contains a decimal point

Scientific Notation 1) The coefficient is always a number equal to or greater than one
Rules but less than ten and is multiplied by 10 to the appropriate
power
2) Numbers that are less than 1 have an exponent that is negative
3) Numbers that are greater than 1 have an exponent that is
positive
4) Adding a decimal point at the end of a number without a zero
makes the last digit (zero) a significant figure
a) Example: 5.20*102=520., not 520.0 because the last 0
would be significant
5) Remember, 100=1

Scientific Notation Multiplication and Division:

Math Rules Answer has the same number of significant figures as the lowest
number in the calculation.
Ex: 3 sig figs*5 sig figs=3 sig figs

Addition and Subtraction:

Answer has the lowest number of decimal places
1.01+2.03444=3.04

Examples:
(0.430/1.01)-0.25=.18 seconds
(25.10*.505)+1.11=13.8 cm2

Accuracy The closeness of a measurement to the true value of what is being

measured

Precision Describes the closeness, or reproducibility, of a set of measurements

taken under the same conditions

Absolute error Experiment value - accepted value

Percent Error (|Experimental value - Accepted value| * 100) / Accepted value

Measurement In order to get good laboratory results when performing a quantitative

lab, you must be as precise and accurate as possible. This means
having as many digits as you are allowed according to your
measurement device

In other words, if smallest increment (mark) of the measuring device is

in tenth (less than 1, such as 0.1, 0.2, etc.), you need 2 decimal places
to report your measurement, and if the smallest increment (mark) is in
ones (such as 1, 2, etc.), you need only 1 decimal place to report your
measurement.

If what you are measuring is exactly on an increment mark, your

measurement ends with a zero

Uncertainty The uncertainty in a measurement is +/- half of the increment value. For
example, if your graduated cylinder has a value of 1 for the smallest
increment, the uncertainty is +/- 0.5

Estimated digit The last digit you report in a measurement is called an estimated digit

DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS

Prefixes Milli- means 1/1000

Centi- means 1/100
Deci- means 1/10
Kilo- means 1000

Conversions 1km = 1000m

1m = 100cm
1m = 1000mm
1m = 10dm
1cm3 = 1 mL
1dm3 = 1 L
Volume Units The SI (International System of Units) unit is the liter (L), but often milliliters
(mL) are used for more accurate measurements.
1L = 1000mL

Mass Units SI unit is the kilogram (kg), but we often use the gram (g)
1kg = 1000g

Temperature Common units are Celsius (C) and Kelvin (K)

Units K = C + 273

Energy Units SI unit is the joule (j), but we often use the calorie (cal)
1 cal = 4.184j

Pressure Units SI unit is the Pascal (Pa), but we often use kiloPascals (kPa), atmosphere
(atm), torr, and millimeter of mercury (mmHg)
101.3 kPa = 1 atm = 760 torr = 760 mmHg

Steps of Unit 1. Write your given with unit

Conversion: 2. Determine conversion factor
3. Place conversion factor in parenthesis so that the given unit is on the
bottom
4. Multiply the given by what's on top , divide by what’s on bottom
5. Round your final answer to the same number of significant figures as the
given