1.

1: Subatomic Particles
 Three subatomic particles (particles that make up the atom): protons, neutrons, and
electrons 
 Protons 
 In the nucleus 
 Charge = 1.6*10^-19 C (+1e or +1) 
 Mass = 1 amu (1.67*10^-27 kg)
 Atomic number (Z): number of protons found in an atom of that element
 acts as a unique identifier for each element since elements are defined by
the number of protons they contain (i.e. all atoms of oxygen contain 8
protons)
 All atoms of a given element have same number of protons, but mass may vary
(varying number of neutrons) 

 Neutrons
 In the nucleus
 No charge! (neutral) 
 Mass = slightly more than 1 amu (1.67*10^-27 kg) 
 Protons + neutrons = mass number  (A) 
 Mass number (A) - atomic number (Z) = neutrons only 
 Given element can have a variable number of neutrons → variable mass number 
 Isotopes: atoms that share an atomic number but have different mass numbers 
 Electrons 
 Surround the nucleus and are associated with varying levels of energy 
 Charge: -1.67*10^-19 C (-1e or -e) 
 Mass is negligible 
 Electrostatic force > gravitational force due to small size of particles 
 Electrostatic attraction between protons (+) and electrons (-) 
 Move around nucleus at varying distances → varying electrical potential energy 
 Electrons (-) Closer to the nucleus (+) are at lower electrical potential
energy 
 Electrons (-) farther out from nucleus (+) are at higher electrical potential
energy 
 Valence electrons: farthest electrons from the nucleus and have the strongest
interactions with the surrounding environment and the weakest interactions with
the nucleus 
  More likely to involved in bonds with other atoms because they
experience the least electrostatic pull from their own nucleus 
 Determine reactivity of atom
 sharing/transferring of these valence electrons in bonds allows elements to fill
their highest energy level to increase stability 
 Neutral state of atom means equal protons and electrons 
 Losing electrons → positive charge (cation) 
 Gaining electrons → negative charge (anion) 

1.2: Atomic Mass vs. Atomic Weight 

 Atomic mass = mass number vs. atomic weight 
 Atomic weight is a constant (number reported on periodic table) 
 Atomic mass (mass number) varies from one isotope to another 
 Mass number/atomic mass varies because the number of neutrons change 
 Atomic mass (mass number) 
 Mass of one proton/neutron  = one atomic mass unit  (amu) 
 Size of atomic mass unit = 1/12 mass of the carbon-12 atom (1.67*10^-27 kg) 
 Atomic mass (mass number): sum of protons and neutrons 
 Isotopes: atoms of the same element with varying mass numbers 
 Mass number differs because the number of neutrons has changed (protons
or the atomic number is the same for the same element) 
 Referred to by by the name of the element-mass number (ex: carbon-13) 
 Isotopes of hydrogen have special names 
 Protium (one proton, atomic mass of 1) 
 Deuterium (one proton and one neutron, atomic mass of 2) 
 Tritium (one proton and two neutron, atomic mass of 3) 
 Since isotopes have same number of protons and electrons, chemical properties
are usually similar 
 Atomic weight 
 Almost all elements occur as two or more isotopes in nature 
 The isotopes are usually present in same proportion in any sample of a naturally
occurring element 
 I.e. a sample of chlorine will always have the same proportions of Cl-35
and Cl-37
 Atomic weight: weighted average of an elements different isotopes in amu 
 Number reported on the periodic table 
 Isotopes that occurs in higher proportion has more influence on the
average 
 Half life corresponds with stability → helps determine the relative proportions of
these different isotopes
 Atomic weight represents mass of the “average” atom of the specific element (in
amu) and the mass of one mole of the element (in g) 
 I.e. 35.5 amu represents the mass of an average Cl atom vs. 35.5 g
representing the mass for one mole of Cl atoms
 Mole: number of “things” (atoms, ions, molecules) equal to avogadro’s number N = 6.02
A

* 10^23
1.3: Rutherford, Planck, and Bohr
 Ernest Rutherford → small positively charged nucleus that accounts for small portion of
atom’s volume 
 Max Planck → first quantum theory, proposing energy emitted as EM radiation from
matter comes in discrete bundles call quanta 
 Quantum (pl. quanta): minimum amount of any physical entity 
 Photon is the minimum amount of light (which is a form of EM radiation),
so a photon = quantum of light
 Energy of quantum (E)= h*f
 h = planck's constant (6.6*10^-34) 
 f = frequency 
 Bohr Model
 Bohr developed electronic structure of hydrogen atom using work of Rutherford
and Planck 
 Using Rutherford’s findings, Bohr assumed that H atom consisted of central
proton around which an electron orbited in circular motion 
 Centripetal force created by electrostatic force between positively charged
proton and negatively charged electron 
 Using Planck’s quantum theory,  Bohr corrected idea that electron could take on
any value for radius/velocity and therefore angular momentum and kinetic energy
 Bohr placed restrictions on angular momentum of electron orbiting a
hydrogen nucleus could be given by: L = n*h/2*π
 n =  principal quantum number (any positive integer)
 h = planck’s constant
 Since n is the only variable, angular momentum of an e- changes only in
discrete amounts with respect to the principal quantum number 
 Bohr related the permitted angular momentum values to the energy of the
electron 
 E = - R /n^2
H

 R (Rydberg unit of energy) = 2.18*10^-18 (J/electron) 

H

 n = principle quantum number 

 Energy changes in respect to the principal quantum number 
 Energy increases (becomes less negative) as n increases (farther out from
nucleus) 
 Bohr described the structure of the hydrogen atom as a nucleus with one proton
forming a dense core around which a single electron revolved in a defined
pathway (orbit) at a discrete energy level 
 Energy level can change but the pathway was restricted 
 Idea that pathway is restriction was later revised 
 Transferring energy equal to the energy difference between orbitals → electron
jumping from one orbit to another (a higher energy orbit) 
 Orbits have increasing radii (increasing radii = increasing energy), so the smallest,
lowest-energy radii was ground state (n=1) 
 Ground state: state of lowest energy in which all electrons are in the
lowest possible orbitals 
  Electron jumping from lower energy orbit to higher energy means the atom is in
an excited state
 Bohr model of hydrogen atom (and other one electron systems) can be used to explain the
atomic emission and absorption spectra of atoms 
 At RT, most atoms are in ground state (lowest energy) 
 Increasing temp or using other forms of energy → excited state (electron in higher
energy state) 
 Excited state is brief, so electron will return rapidly to ground state → emission of
discrete amounts of energy in the form of photons
 As electrons go from lower to higher energy they AHED 
 Absorb light 
 Higher potential energy
 Excited state 
 Distant (from nucleus) 

 EM energy of photons (E) = h*f = h*c/ƛ 

 c/ƛ = f 
 c=speed of light (3.0*10^8 m/s) 
 Electrons in an atom can be excited to different energy levels 
 Electrons return to their grounds states and will emit photon with a wavelength
characteristic of the specific energy transition it undergoes 
 Energy levels do not form a continuum but rather are quantized to certain values
→ composed of light at specified frequencies (line spectrum) 
 Line spectrum: each line on the emission spectrum corresponds to a specific electron
transition 
 Each element can have its electrons excited to a different set of distinct energy level so
each possesses a unique atomic emission spectrum 
 Atomic emission spectrum can be used as a fingerprint for the element 
 Element always emits same color (wavelength/frequency) when excited → match
emissions from unknown elements to determine the element 
 Hydrogen emission lines 
 Transition from n≥2 to n=1 (Lyman series) 
 Transition from n≥3 to n=2 (Balmer series) 
 Transition from n≥4 to n=3 (Paschen series)
 Lyman series include larger transitions → shorter photon wavelength in EM spectrum
(higher frequency so higher energy)  

 Energy associated with a change in the principal quantum number from a higher initial
value to a lower final value is equal to the photon predicted by Planck’s quantum theory 
 E=hc/lambda = -R [1/n -1/n ] 
H i
2
f
2

 Energy of emitted photon corresponds to the difference in energy between the

higher energy initial state and the lower energy final state 
 Negative sign accounts for absorption and emission 
 Negative: absorption 
 1/small # - 1/big # → positive value, so negative*positive =
negative
  going from n=2 to n=3 
 Positive: emission 
 1/big # - 1/small #→ negative value, so negative*negative =
positive 
 Going from n=3 to n=2 
 To go from a lower energy level to a higher energy level, the electron must absorb
exactly the right amount of energy to make the transition
 Exciting an electron results in absorbing energy at a specific wavelength 
 Every element possesses an absorption spectrum (tells what wavelength the electron must
absorb to be excited) 
 Wavelength of emission = wavelength of excitation = photon of light absorbed or emitted
since the difference between energy levels does NOT change (conservation of energy) 
 Identification of elements in gas phase requires absorption spectra 
 Takeaway: 
 Each element has a characteristic set of energy levels 
 Electron must absorb the right amount of energy to move from lower to higher
energy levels (absorption) 
 Electrons absorb energy in the form of light 
 When electrons move from high energy levels to low energy levels, they emit the
same amount of energy (that was absorbed) in the form of light (emission) 
1.4: Quantum Mechanical Model of Atoms 
 Bohr’s model was inadequate in explaining structure and behavior of atoms containing
more than one electron
 Failed because it did not account for repulsion between multiple electrons
surrounding the nucleus 
 Modern quantum theory: electrons move rapidly and are localized within regions of space
around the nucleus (orbitals) 
 Bohr model said that they moved in defined circular pathways (orbits) 
 Emphasizes idea that we can only describe the probability of finding an electron
rather than knowing its exact position 
 Current quantum mechanical model (study of atoms and subatomic particles) states that is
is impossible to pinpoint exactly where an e- is at any given moment in time 
 Expressed by heisenberg uncertainty principle: it is impossible to simultaneously
determine (with perfect accuracy) the momentum and the position of an e- 
 To find momentum it has to be moving so the position is uncertain
 To find the position, it has to stop moving so the momentum is unknown

 Quantum Numbers 
 Modern atomic theory states that any electron can be completely described by
four atomic numbers (n,l,ml, and ms) 
 Pauli exclusion principle: no two electrons in a given atom can possess the same
set of four quantum numbers 
 Position and energy of an electron described by its quantum numbers are known
as its energy state 
 Value of n limits the value of l which limits the value of ml 
 Given a value of n, only particular values of l are possible 
 Given a value of l, only particular values of ml are possible 
 Values of quantum numbers give info about size, shape, and orientation of the
orbitals 
 Principal quantum number (n) 
 Describes energy level 
 n=any positive integer 
 Larger value of n → larger radii and higher energy level of the electron’s shell
(energy level) 
 Within each shell, there is a capacity to hold a certain number of electrons
 Maximum numbers of electrons within a shell: 2n (n= energy level) 
2
  Difference in energy between two shells decreases as the distance from the
nucleus increases 
 Occurs because energy changes as a function of [1/n - 1/n ] 
i
2
f
2

 n=3 to n=4 < n=1 to n=2 

 Azimuthal (angular momentum) Quantum number (l)
 Refers to shape and number of subshells within a given principal energy level
(shell) 
 Important implications for chemical bonding and bond angles 
 Range of possible values: 0 to (n-1) 
 Example n=2 gives l values of 0 and 1 
 NOTE: the value of n also tells you how the number of possible subshells (i.e. for
n=2 there are two subshells l= 0 and 1) 
 Spectroscopic notation: shorthand representation of the principal and azimuthal
quantum numbers. n remains a number, but l is designated by a letter 
 l= 0 = s 
 l= 1 = p 
 l= 2 = d 
 l= 3 = f
 Example: electron in shell n=4 and subshell l=2 is in the 4d subshell 

 Certain capacity for electrons in each subshell: 4l+2 (l= azimuthal quantum
number) 
 Within the same shell, energy of subshell increases as the l value increases but
energies of subshells from different shells may overlap 
 I.e. 4s subshell is lower in energy than 3d subshell 
 Magnetic quantum number (m )  l

 Specifies the particular orbital (orientation) within a subshell where an electron is

most likely to be found at a given moment in time 
 Each orbital can hold a maximum of two electrons 
 Range of values: -l to l including 0 
 I.e. l=0 → m value of 0 (one orbital in the s subshell) 
l
  Shape of orbital is dependent on subshell (s,p,d,or f found from l value) 
 S is spherical 
 P is dumbbell-shaped and align along the x,y, and z 

 Shapes of orbitals are defined in terms of a concept called probability density

(likelihood that an electron will be found in a particular region of space) 
 As atomic number increases, so does the number of electrons (as long as the
species is neutral) 
 Spin Quantum Number (m )  s

 Two possible orientations: +½ and -½ 

 When two e- are in the same orbital, they have different spins (paired) 
 Electrons in different orbitals with same m values have parallel spins 
s

 Reference: 
 2l+1 possible values of m for given value of l (subshell) 
l

 Number of orbitals within a subshell

 n orbitals for any value of n 
2

 Number of orbitals in a shell (energy level) 

  2n electrons per energy level (n) 
2

 Number of electrons in an energy level 

 4l+2 electrons per subshell (l) 
 Number of electrons in a subshell
 Electron Configurations 
 For a given atom or ion, electron configuration designates the pattern by which
subshells are filled and the number of electrons within each energy level and
subshell 
 Uses of spectroscopic notation (ex:1s ) 2

 First number = energy level 

 Letter = subshell 
 Superscript number = number of electrons in the subshell 
 Aufbau (building up) principle: electrons fill from lower to higher energy
subshells and each subshell will fill completely before electrons begin to enter the
next subshell 
 n+l rule can be used to rank subshells by increasing energy 
 Lower value of sum of principal and azimuthal quantum number → lower
energy of subshell 
 If two subshells have same n+l value then the subshell with the lower n
value has the lower energy level and will be filled first 
 Reading across the periodic table will give correct electron configuration 
 Remember that 1s is lowest s orbital, 2p is the lowest p orbital, 3d is the
lowest d orbital and 4f is the lowest f orbital
 Also remember where the lanthanide and actinide series belongs in the
periodic table 
 Abbreviated electron configuration involves placing the noble gas that precedes
the element of interest in brackets then continuing the configuration from that
point 
 Ex: Ca → [Ar] 4s 2

 For ions 
 Anions (extra electron(s)): just add electrons as normal using all the same
principles 
 cations (less electron(s)): remove electrons from subshell with the highest
value for n 
 If tied for highest n then remove from subshell with highest l value
among the subshells with highest n value 
 Hund’s Rule: within a given subshell, orbitals are filled such that there are a
maximum number of half-filled orbitals with parallel spins 
 Electrons like to be alone before having to double up 
 Based on electron repulsion 
 From hund’s rule, half-filled and fully-filled d orbitals have lower energies
(higher stability) than other states
 EXCEPTIONS to rules due to hund’s rule
 Chromium and copper (and other elements in its group (column)) 
 Similar shifts in the f subshells but never seen in p
 Remove one electron from the highest s to the highest d to give half filled
or fully filled orbitals 
 Occurs bc extra stability outweighs the cost of moving the electron to
higher energy orbital 
 Presence of paired and unpaired electrons affects the chemical and magnetic
properties of an atom or molecule 
 Unpaired e- align with external magnetic field → attracted to magnetic
field → paramagnetic 
 No unpaired e- are opposed to being oriented to magnetic field →  slightly
repelled by magnetic field → diamagnetic 
 Valence electrons 
 Electrons in the outermost energy level (shell) of an atom 
 Most easily removed 
 Available for bonding 
 Active electrons of an atom → dominate chemical behavior of the atom 
 Valence electrons by groups 
 1A-2A (1 and 2): e- in highest s subshell 
 3A-8A (13-18): e- in highest s and p subshell 
 Transition metals: e- in highest s and d subshells 
 Lanthanide and actinide: e- in highest s and f 
 All elements in period three and below can accept electrons into their d
subshell → hold more than 8 valence electrons 
 Violates the octet rule