BY

DADA OLUWASOGO KEHINDE

Department of pure and applied science

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  Acid ,Base, Salt
 Borh’s atomic model  Ph Scale

  Acid – base indicator

The energy state of hydrogen atoms
 Atomic number  Thermodynamic

 Chemical bonding  Surface and tension

 Periodic tables  Treatment water plant

 Solution and Colloidal

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Introduction- following the discoveries of hydrogen emission
spectra and the photoelectric effect ,the Danish physicist Niel
Bohr(1885-1962) proposed a new model of the atom 1915. He
proposed that electron do not radiate energy as they orbit the
nucleus, but exist in states of constant energy as they orbit the
nucleus , but exist in states of constant energy which he called
stationay states.

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The Bohr’s postulates are summarize as follow:-
 An atom consists of a dense positively charged nucleus
situated at the
centre surrounded by electrons. The electrons revolve around the
nucleus
in a certain selected circular paths called orbital and this does not
emit
energy.
 Only those orbits are permitted in which the angular
momentum (Mvr) of
the electron is an integral multiple of h/2π.
MVr = nh/2π
M=mass of electron, V=velocity of electron, R=radius of the orbit,
H= Planck's constant, N= Number of orbit in which electron is
present such as 1,2,3
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 Electrons in an atom can have only definite or discrete value of
energy, which is equalization of angular momentum.
 As long as electron remains in a particular orbit, it neither loses nor
gain energy. These orbits are known as stationary state or ground
state.
 Each line on the spectrum of hydrogen or any atom is due to the
passage of an electron from an orbit of higher energy to one of lower
energy by emitting one or more quanta of energy.
∆E = E2 – E1
= hv
but v = ∆E/h
V = E2 – E1/h
E1 & E2 = Energies of electrons in the first and second energy level.
V = Frequency of radiation absorbed or emitted.
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 Bohr’s theory cannot explain line spectra of multi-electrons atom. It
can only explain the line spectrum of an atom with one electron, such
as, H atom, He+, Li2+, Be3+ etc.
 It cannot explain the splitting of spectral lines in magnetic field. When
an atom is emitting radiation, if placed in a strong magnetic field, each
spectra line will further split into a number of lines. This phenomenon
is called ZEEMAN EFFECT.
 Bohr’s model is unable to explain the splitting of spectra lines in an
electric field and the phenomenon is known as STARK EFFECT.
 Bohr’s model is also unable to explain Heisenberg’s uncertainty
principles.

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A French physicist took up the idea that very small particle such as
electron might also display wave properties de Broglie predicted that a
particle with a mass (m) and a velocity (c) should have a wavelength
associated to it that is, he proposed that electron and other particle have
wave properties, given by the equation.
λ = h/p or λ = h/mc
This is known as de Broglie equation. It is obtained from Max Planck’s
equation (E – hv) and Albert Einstein equation (E = mc2) combining the
two equations
hv = m𝑐 2
but v = c/λ.
hc/λ = m𝑐 2
λ = h/mc. 7
Since momentum is the product of mass and velocity, then P = m x c. λ=
h/p = h/mc.
Where h = Planck’s constant
λ = wave length (called labda)
Example 1.
Calculate the de Broglie wavelength for a 50mg weight moving with a
velocity of
1m5-1 (h = 6.62 x 10−34 Kgm2𝑆𝐸𝐶 −1 ).

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Applying the de Broglie equation. λ = h/mc Where: h = 6.626 x 10-34
kgm2 Sec-1 m = 50mg = 5 x 10-5kg, c = 1m5-1
λ=?
Substituting the values in the above equation
λ = 6.626 x 10-34kgm2
sec-1
5 x 10-5kg x 1m sec-1
= 1.33 x 10-29m
Example 2:-
A body moving with a speed of 100m sec-1 has a wavelength of 5 x 10-36m.
Calculate the mass of the body (h = 6.626 x 10-34 kg m2
sec-1)
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Applying the equation λ = h/m m = h/λc. Where h =
6.626 x 10-34 kgm2 sec-1
λ = 5 x 10-36m
C = 100m sec -1
Substituting the values
6.626 x 10−34 kg𝑀2 𝑆𝐸𝐶 −1 5 x 10−36 M x 100m𝑆𝐸𝐶 −1
= 1.33kg
CLASS WORK
Calculate the wave length associated with an electron moving
with a velocity of 2 x 105 cm sec-1 (mass of the electron = 0.1 x
10-28g).

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 Atomic Number: is defined as the total number of protons in
the nucleus of an atom.
 Mass Number: is defined as the sum total numbers of
protons and Neutrons in the nucleus of an atom.
 The relative atomic mass: of an element is the number of
times the average mass of one atom of that element is heavier
than one-twelfth (1/12) the mass of one atom of carbon – 12
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
Relative atomic mass = 1
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛−12
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 The relative molecular mass: is the ratio of the average mass of one molecule of an element or
compound to one twelfth of the mass of an atom of carbon-12

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Calculate the Relative molecular mass of the following:
(i) Tetraoxosulphate (iv) acid (ii) Hydrogen chloride
Answers:
(i) H2SO4
(1 x 2) + 32 + (16 x 4)
2 + 32 + 64 = 98
(ii) HCl = 1 + 35.5 = 36.5
HOME WORK
Calculate the relative molecular mass of 1. 𝐻𝑁𝑂3 2.NAOH 3. 𝑁𝑎2 𝐶𝑜3

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Mass Spectrophotometer : The instrument used to separate and measure
the masses of different ions, atoms or molecules in a beam of positively
changed gaseon ions passing through a magnetic field is known as mass
spectrophotometer.
Isotopes : are atoms of the same element having the same atomic Number
(i.e.Protons number) but different mass. Examples are
Element Isotopes
Carbon 12 13 14
6𝐶 6𝐶 6𝐶
Hydrogen 𝐻1 𝐻2 𝐻3
USES OF ISOTOPES
 They are used as tracers in tracing reactions pathways or mechanism,
example in hydrolysis of ester.
 Radiocarbon dating which is very important in determining the age of
a
dead tissues.
 They are used as an energy source in a nuclear reactors.
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Chemical bond: is a force that hold two or more atoms of the same element or
different element together.
Octet Rule: The tendency of an atom to acquire inert gas configuration gives
rise to the Octet rule which state that: “Atoms other than hydrogen atom loss
or gain electrons until there are eight (8) electrons in their Outer shell”. (Note
this is more common with representative element only).
TYPE BONDING
 Electrovalent or ionic bonding
 Covalent bonding
 Coordinate(dative) bonding
 Metallic bonding

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This is type of bond form as a result of transfer of electron from one
element (metal) to another (non-metal) so as to assume inert gas
configuration e.g. in the formation of sodium chloride i.e. NaCl.
Properties of electrovalent bond
 They are usually solid with conduct electricity when in solution,
or molten form or fused state.
 They have high melting and boiling point.

 They are soluble in polar solvent e.g. (water) but insoluble in

non-polar compound or organic solvent e.g. ether, kerosene,
petrol etc.
 They possess crystal structure as they arrange themselves in an
orderly fashion in the lattice

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Atoms may attain stable electronic configuration by sharing of
electrons each atom contributing an equal number of electron for
sharing to form the bond. The resulting Union is Known as a
covalent bond. Sharing of electrons occurs essentially between atoms
of comparable electro negativities e.g. E & H C & O, C& N, etc.
Properties of covalent bond
 They consist of molecules which have definite shape

 Simple covalent compound are usually gases or volatile liquid.

 They have low melting and boiling point

 They are non conductors and non electrolyte both in solid and in
solution
NOTE: different between covalent and electrovalent bonding and
give examples of compound exhibit both type of bonding
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This is a special type of covalent bond, with the sharing electrons are
donated by one of the bonding atoms. E.g. formation of ammonium ion
(NHY)+.The donating electron it know as lone pair of electron. Another
example is the formation of complexes e.g.
Properties of dative bond
 Their melting and boiling points are higher than purely covalent
compounds and lower than purely ionic compounds .
 Sparingly soluble in polar solvent but readily soluble in non polar
solvents
 the bond is rigid and directional. Thus coordinate compounds show
isomerism
 They are bad conductor of heat and electricity.

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Is a type of chemical bond formed between positively charged atoms
in which the free electrons are shared among a lattice of cations.
Metallic bonding is the main type of chemical bond that forms between
metal atoms.
properties of metallic bond
 They have mobile valence electrons that are non directional
 The valence electron are weakly attracted to the nucleus hence one
can
say metallic bond are weaker than covalent bond.
 They also have the following properties electrical conductivity,
thermal conductivity, ductility, malleability ,metallic luster
NOTE: Give example of compounds that exhibit metallic bond and
discuss their formation. Explain the following bond energy, bond
angle ,electronegativity.

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The table showing the orderly arrangement of elements in order of their increases
atomic number is called periodic table. The table is important because----
 Its organizes and systematizes the chemistry of elements
 It provides information as to the similarities and differences in properties of
various elements.
 Its explains the causes of periodicity of properties at certain regular intervals
ATOMIC PROPERTIES
Atomic radius : Is a measure of the size of its atoms, usually the mean or typical
distance from the center of the nucleus to the boundary of the surrounding shells of
electron.
Ionization Energy : is the quantity of energy that an isolated, gaseous atom in the
ground electronic state must absorb to discharge an electron, resulting in a cation

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Electron Affinity: Is defined as the change in energy (in KJ/mole)
of a neutral atom (in the gaseous phase) when electron is added to
the atom to form a negative ion.
Electro-negativity: Is the ability of a bounded atom to attract the
shared electron
SUMMARY
 The vertical columns on the periodic table are called GROUPS
or FAMILIES because pf their similar chemical behavior
 All members of a family of elements have the same number of
valence electrons and similar chemical properties
 The horizontal rows on the periodic table are called periods

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Definition : Is the study of energy changes, which occur during chemical
reaction.
THERMOCHEMISTRY
(i) Open System: Is a system that allows exchange of material with its
surrounding
(ii) Close System: It does not allows exchange of material it has a fixed
amount of matter, but it can energy with surrounding
(iii) Isolated system: It does not allows exchange material and it has no contact
with surrounding.
Thermodynamics Function: (terms) These are factors that determine the
spontaneity of a reaction.
Enthalpy: (H) is the quantity of heat, which flows into or out of a system at
constant
pressure (i.e heat content of a reaction)

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Enthalpy change (DH) of a reaction is the difference between the enthalpies of
products and the enthalpies of reactants. DH = H (Products) – H (reactants)
Exothermic reaction: is a reaction in which heat is given out to the surrounding.
This reaction DH is negative and the reactants are at higher energy level than the
product.
Endothermic reaction: Is a reaction in which heat is absorbed from the
surrounding. This reaction DH is positive and the reactants are at lower energy
level than product.
Entropy: (S) is a property of a substance measure in Kg J K-I mol-I it is simply
defined
as the degree of disorder or randomness of a substance.
Free Energy: The free energy of a chemical system, G, is that energy which is
available for doing work. This is the driving force that bring about a chemical
change.

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First law of thermodynamic: It state that energy may be converted from one
form to another, but it cannot be created or destroyed. This is actually the law of
conservation of Energy.
Second law of thermodynamic: All processes occur spontaneously in the
direction that increases the total entropy of the Universe (system plus
surroundings).
Third law of thermodynamic : State that at absolute zero temperature all perfect
crystals have entropy of zero

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 Arrhenius Concept of acids and Bases
According to the Arrhenius theory, an acid is defined as any substance
which dissociates in aqueous solution to produce hydrogen ions H: or
hydroxonium ion H30+
The advantages of this modification to Arrhenius theory are:
(1) It recognizes the role of water as a solvent in the dissociation of aids.
(2) It explains why substances such as hydrogen chloride and etharnoice
acid can
only show their usual acidic properties in the presence of water.
According to Arrhenius theory, Bases are substances which react with H+
ion to form water.
Assignment--- Give example of strong base and strong acid , Weak base
and weak acid
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pH is defined as the negative logarithm to base ten of hydrogen ion
or hydroxonium ion
concentration
1
:. pH =
𝐿𝑂𝐺{ 𝐻3 𝑂+ }
Or pH = - Log {𝐻3 𝑂+ }
While the pH value of a base is term as POH and it is defined as the
logarithm of the reciprocal of the hydroxide ion concentration to
base ten.
CLASS WORK
Calculate the PH of (a) 1.0 x 10−3𝑀 HCl solution (b) 0.100M nitric
acid solution.
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Defintion : Acid base indicator is either a weak acid or weak base
that exhibit a colour change as the concentration of hydrogen (𝐻 + )
or hydroxide(𝑂𝐻 − ) ions changes in aqueous solution. It is also know
as PH indicator.
Indicator Acid color Base color pH range p𝑲𝑰𝒏
Thymol blue(first change) Red yellow 1.2-2.8 1.5
Methyl orange Red yellow 3.2- 4.4 3.7
Bromocresol green Yellow Blue 3.8-5.4 4.7
Methyl red Yellow Red 4.8- 6.0 5.1
Bromothymol blue Yellow Blue 6.0-7.6 7.0
Phenol red Yellow Red 6.8-8.4 7.9
Thymol blue (second change) Yellow Blue 8.0-9.6 8.9
phenolphthalein Colorless Magenta 8.2- 10.0 9.4

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The surface tension of a liquid : is the energy required to increase the surface
area by a unit amount (in SI, the units are J/𝑀2 ) In general, the stronger the
forces are between the particles in a liquid, the greater then surface tension
e.g. water has high surface tension because its molecules form multiple of
hydrogen bonds.
Colloids: are mixture of two substances, in which one substance is divided
into minute particles (ranging from 1 to 1000nm in diameter) and dispersed
over another substance,
A suspension : is defined as heterogeneous mixture of undissolved particles
in a given medium.
A heterogeneous mixture is one country particles large enough to be seen
with the naked eye and clearly distinct from the surrounding fluid
while homogenous mixture is one which the particles are individual molecule
distribution evenly through out the fluid.

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Colloids type Dispersed substance Dispersing medium Examples

Aerosol Liquid Gas Fog

Foam Gas Liquid Whipped cream

Solid foam Gas Solid Marshmallow

Emulsion Liquid Liquid Milk hair cream

Solid emulsion Liquid Solid Butter

sol Solid Solid paints, cell fluid

Aerosol Solid Gas Smoke

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Explain the following
Absorption
Adsorption
Flotation
Chromatography

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Clean water is a priceless and limited resource that we have began to
treasure only recently, after decades of pollution and waste, because of
the natural tendency of systems to become disordered. It required energy
to remove dissolved, dispersed and suspended particles from water to
make it clean enough for human use. Most water destined for human use
comes from wells, lakes, rivers, or even reservoirs that may serve also as
the final sink after the water is used. Many mineral ions such as N𝑂3 and
F 𝑒 3+ may be present in high concentrations. Dissolved organic
compound, some of then toxic, may be present as well. Fine clay particles
and a while spectrum of microorganism occur dispersed in colloidal
form. Large particles and debris of every variety may be present in
suspension.

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Water from natural source move into treatment facility as summaries as follows
 Coarse filtration and screening ,here largest particles are physically removed
 Treatment of water with lime (CaO) and alum (Al2 (S𝑂4 )3): This removes fines
particles including microorganism, which react with lime to form a flufty, gel – like
mass
of Al (OH)3.
3 CaO(s) + 3H2O(L) + Al2 (SO4)3 (s)==== 2Al (OH)3 + 3 CaSO4 (aq)
 The time particle are trapped within or adsorbed on to the enormous surface area
of the gel, which coagulates, settle out and filtered through a sand bed.
 After the removal of suspended and colloidal particles, the water sample is
aerated in large sprayers to saturate the water with oxygen, which speeds the
oxidation of dissolved organic compound

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 The water is than stabilized, usually by treatment with chlorine gas
(Cl2 (g)) and or aqueous solution of hypo chlorite ion (ClO-) these
may give the water an unpleasant odor. Chlorine may also from toxic
chlorinated hydrocarbons, but these can be removed by adsorption
on to activated charcoal particles. These steps through the treatment
facility dispose of debris, grit colloidal clay, microorganism, and
much of the oxidization organic matter, but dissolved ions remain.
Many of these can be removed by water softening and reverse
osmosis water softening and reverse osmosis
ASSIGNMENT
Explain the chemistry of hard water and how to remove the hardness of
water.

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