‫‪Physical Chemistry‬‬

‫أ‪.‬د‪ /‬نشوه مختار حسن رزق‬

‫أستاذ ورئيس قسم البيوتكنولوجيا البيئية ومدير وحدة ضمان‬
‫الجودة والتطوير المستمر‬
‫معهد الهندسة الوراثية –جامعة مدينة السادات‬
Atomic Theory and Atomic
Structure

Lecture 1
An element, compound or mixture is
composed of small particles called
.atoms

Dalton's Atomic Theory

The main points of Dalton’s atomic
theory are:
2- All atoms of an element are
identical.
3- The atoms of different elements
vary in size and mass.
4- Compounds are produced
through different whole-number
combinations of atoms.
1- Everything is composed of
atoms, which are the indivisible
building blocks of matter and
cannot be destroyed.
5- A chemical reaction results in the
rearrangement of atoms in the
reactant and product compounds.
The structure of the Atom
An atom is the smallest unit of matter
that retains all of the chemical
properties of an element. Atoms
combine to form molecules, which then
.interact to form solids, gases, or liquids
Atomic Particles
Atoms consist of three basic particles:
protons, electrons, and neutrons. The
nucleus (center) of the atom contains the
protons (positively charged) and the
neutrons (no charge). The outermost
regions of the atom are called electron
shells and contain the electrons
(negatively charged).
Atomic Number
Neutral atoms of an element contain an
equal number of protons and electrons.
The number of protons determines an
element’s atomic number (Z) and
.distinguishes one element from another
:For example
carbon’s atomic number (Z) is 6
because it has 6 protons. The
number of neutrons can vary to
produce isotopes, which are atoms
of the same element that have
different numbers of neutrons.
The number of electrons can also
be different element, thus
producing ions (charged atoms).
For instance, iron, Fe, can exist in
its neutral state, or in the +2 and +3
ionic states.
Mass Number
An element’s mass number (A) is
the sum of the number of protons
and the number of neutrons. The
small contribution of mass from
electrons is disregarded in
calculating the mass number.
Protons and neutrons both weigh
about one atomic mass unit or
amu. Isotopes of the same element
will have the same atomic number
but different mass numbers.
Isotopes
Isotopes are various forms of an
element that have the same
number of protons but a different
number of neutrons. Some
elements, such as carbon,
potassium, and uranium, have
multiple naturally-occurring
isotopes. Isotopes are defined first
by their element and then by the
sum of the protons and neutrons
present.
Carbon-12 (or 12C) contains six
protons, six neutrons, and six
electrons;
therefore, it has a mass
number of 12 amu (six protons
.and six neutrons)
• Carbon-14 (or 14C) contains six
protons, eight neutrons, and six

electrons; its atomic mass is 14

amu (six protons and eight
neutrons). While the mass of
individual isotopes is different, their
Liquids and Solids
Liquids
The liquid state of matter is an
intermediate-phase-between solid
 and gas. Like the particles of a
solid, particles in a liquid are
subject to intermolecular attraction;
however, liquid particles have
more space between them, so they
are not fixed in position. The
attraction between the particles in
a liquid keeps the volume of the
liquid constant.  The movement of
the particles causes the liquid to be
.variable in shape
Evaporation
Evaporation is a surface phenomenon in
which molecules located near the
liquid's edge, not contained by enough
liquid pressure on that side, escape into
.vapor the surroundings as
Because the particles of a liquid
are in constant motion, they will
collide with one another, and with
the sides of the container. Such
collisions transfer energy from one
.particle to another
 Vapour Pressure

When a liquid evaporates inside a closed

container, the particles cannot escape
the system. The pressure exerted by the
vapor/liquid equilibrium in the closed
.container is called the vapor pressure
 Boiling Point

The boiling point of a substance is the

temperature at which the 
vapor pressure of a liquid equals the 
pressure surrounding the liquid and the
.liquid changes into a vapor
For example, water boils at 100 °C
(212 °F) at sea level, but at 93.4 °C
(200.1 °F) at 1,905 metres
(6,250 ft) altitude. For a given
pressure, different liquids will boil
. at different temperatures
Freezing Point
The temperature at which a liquid
 becomes a solid. As with the 
melting point, increased pressure from the
greater attraction of liquid molecules to
each other (due to cohesion) than to the
.molecules in the air (due to adhesion)
The freezing point of water at a
pressure of one atmosphere is 0°C
(32°F); that of liquid nitrogen is -
209.89°C (-345.8°F).