Chapter 2 – Chemical Basis of Life

Basic Chemistry
○ Chemistry: scientific
discipline concerned with the
atomic
composition/structure of
substances and the reactions
they undergo
● Matter, Mass, and Weight
○ Matter: anything that
occupies space and has mass
○ Mass: amount of matter in an
object (unit: kg)
○ Weight: gravitational force
acting on an object of a given
mass
● Elements and Atoms
○ Element: simplest type of
matter having unique chemical
properties (96%
of the body’s weight results
from the elements: oxygen,
carbon, hydrogen,
and nitrogen)
○ Atom: smallest particle of an
element that has the chemical
characteristics of that element
● Atomic Structure
○ Neutrons: no electrical charge
○ Protons: positive charge
○ Electrons: negative charge
○ Each atom is electrically
neutral
○ Protons and Neutrons form
the Nucleus at the center of the
atom and
electrons move around the
nucleus
■ Nucleus accounts for 99.97%
of atom’s mass, but a very small
amount of its volume
○ Regions where electrons are
most likely to be found can be
represented
by an electron cloud
○ Atomic Number: number of
protons (the number of
electrons) in each
atom
○ Mass Number: # of protons +
# of neutrons
● Electrons and Chemical
Bonding
○ Occurs when outermost
electrons are transferred or
shared between
atoms
○ Ionic Bonding
■ Ion: atom or atoms carrying
an electrical charge due to
loss/gain of
1+ electrons
■ Ionic Bond: chemical bond
that results from the attraction
between
ions of opposite charge
Basic Chemistry

Chemistry: scientific discipline concerned with the atomic composition/structure of substances and the
reactions they undergo.

● Matter, Mass, and Weight

All living and nonliving things are composed of matter, which is anything that occupies space and has
mass. Mass is the amount of matter in an object, and weight is the gravitational force acting on an
object of a given mass.

○ Matter: anything that occupies space and has mass

○ Mass: amount of matter in an object (unit: kg)

○ Weight: gravitational force acting on an object of a given mass

● Elements and Atoms

An element is the simplest type of matter having unique chemical properties. About 96% of the
body’s weight results from the elements oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen. However, many other
elements also play important roles in the human body. For example, calcium helps form bones, and
sodium ions are essential for neuronal activity. Some of these elements are present in only trace
amounts but are still essential for life.
 An atom (indivisible) is the smallest particle of an element that has the chemical characteristics
of that element. An element is composed of atoms of only one kind. For example, the element carbon is
composed of only carbon atoms, and the element oxygen is composed of only oxygen atoms.

An element, or an atom of that element, is often represented by a symbol. Usually the symbol is
the first letter or letters of the element’s name—for example, C for carbon, H for hydrogen, and Ca for
calcium. Occasionally, the symbol is taken from the Latin, Greek, or Arabic name for the element; for
example, the symbol for sodium is Na, from the Latin word natrium.

Atomic Structure

The characteristics of matter result from the structure, organization, and behavior of atoms. Atoms are
composed of subatomic particles, some of which have an electrical charge. Like mass and weight,
electrical charge is one of the fundamental properties of matter. Electrical charge is the tendency of
particles to be attracted to each other or repulsed from each other. There are two types of electrical
charge: positive and negative. Particles with opposite charge are attracted to each other while particles
with the same charge are repulsed from each other. The three major types of subatomic particles are
neutrons, protons, and electrons. Neutrons (noo′tronz) do not have an electrical charge, protons (prō
′tonz) have positive charges, and electrons (e-lek′tronz) have negative charges. The positive charge of a
proton is equal in magnitude to the negative charge of an electron. The number of protons and number
of electrons in each atom are equal, and the individual charges cancel each other. Therefore, each atom
is electrically neutral.

Each element is uniquely defined by the number of protons in the atoms of that element. For
example, only hydrogen atoms have one proton, only carbon atoms have six protons, and only oxygen
atoms have eight protons (figure 2.2; see table 2.1). The number of protons in each atom is called the
atomic number, and because the number of electrons and number of protons are equal, the atomic
number is also the number of electrons. Protons and neutrons have about the same mass, and they are
responsible for most of the mass of atoms. Electrons, on the other hand, have very little mass. The mass
number of an element is the number of protons plus the number of neutrons in each atom. For
example, the mass number for carbon is 12 because it has 6 protons and 6 neutrons.

Radioisotopes are radioactive isotopes of an element. They can also be

defined as atoms that contain an unstable combination of neutrons and
protons, or excess energy in their nucleus. How do radioisotopes occur?

The unstable nucleus of a radioisotope can occur naturally, or as a result of artificially

altering the atom. In some cases a nuclear reactor is used to produce radioisotopes.

Radioisotopes are an essential part of radiopharmaceuticals. In fact, they have been

used routinely in medicine for more than 30 years, particularly nuclear medicine which
are used for diagnostics purposes.

Nuclear medicine uses small amounts of radiation to provide information about a

person's body and the functioning of specific organs, ongoing biological processes, or
the disease state of a specific illness. In most cases the information is used by
physicians to make an accurate diagnosis. In certain cases radiation can be used to
treat diseased organs or tumours.

Molecules and Compounds

Molecular formulas

Glucose is a simple sugar with six carbon atoms and one aldehyde group. This
monosaccharide has a chemical formula C6H12O6. It is also known as dextrose.

H2O stands for water.

Bonding of Atoms

The chemical behavior of an atom is dependent on its electrons. The electron cloud around an atom’s
nucleus is organized into different energy levels depending on the distance of an electron from the
nucleus. For simplicity, the energy levels are often drawn as concentric rings, called electron shells,
around the nucleus.

An atom is electrically neutral because it has an equal number of protons and electrons.
However, depending on its electronegativity, an atom can donate electrons to or gain electrons from
other atoms. When this occurs, the numbers of protons and electrons are no longer equal, and a
charged particle called an ion (ī′on) is formed.

After an atom loses an electron, it has one more proton than it has electrons and is positively charged.
For example, a sodium atom (Na) can lose an electron to become a positively charged sodium ion (Na+).
After an atom gains an electron, it has one more electron than it has protons and is negatively charged.
For example, a chlorine atom (Cl) can accept an electron to become a negatively charged chloride ion
(Cl−). Because oppositely charged ions are attracted to each other, positively charged ions tend to
remain close to negatively charged ions. Thus, an ionic (ī-on′ik) bond occurs when electrons are
transferred between atoms, creating oppositely charged ions. For example, Na+ and Cl− are held
together by ionic bonding to form an array of ions called sodium chloride (NaCl), or table salt
A covalent bond forms when atoms share one or more pairs of electrons. The sharing of electrons,
rather than the transfer of electrons, occurs because the atoms have similar electronegativities. The
resulting combination of atoms is called a molecule. An example is the covalent bond between two
hydrogen atoms to form a hydrogen molecule.

Molecules and Compounds:

A molecule is formed when two or more atoms chemically combine to form a structure that behaves as
an independent unit. Sometimes the atoms that combine are of the same type, as when two hydrogen
atoms combine to form a hydrogen molecule. But more typically, a molecule consists of two or more
different types of atoms, such as two hydrogen atoms and an oxygen atom combining to form water.

A compound (kom′pownd; to place together) is a substance resulting from the chemical combination of
two or more different types of atoms. Water is an example of a substance that is a compound and a
molecule. Not all molecules are compounds. For example, a hydrogen molecule is not a compound
because it does not consist of different types of atoms.

A chemical reaction is the formation or breaking of chemical bonds between atoms, ions, molecules, or
compounds. The substances that enter into a chemical reaction are called the reactants, and the
substances that result from the chemical reaction are called the products.

For our purposes, chemical reactions can be classified as synthesis, decomposition, or exchange
reactions When two or more reactants combine to form a larger, more complex product, the process is
called a synthesis reaction, represented symbolically as A + B → AB. Examples of synthesis reactions
include the synthesis of the complex molecules of the human body from the basic “building blocks”
obtained in food and the synthesis of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) molecules.
In a decomposition reaction, reactants are broken down into smaller, less complex products. A
decomposition reaction is the reverse of a synthesis reaction and can be represented in this way: AB →
A + B. Examples of decomposition reactions include the breakdown of food molecules into basic building
blocks and the breakdown of ATP to ADP and a phosphate group.

An exchange reaction is a combination of a decomposition reaction and a synthesis reaction. In

decomposition, the reactants are broken down. In synthesis, the products of the decomposition reaction
are combined. The symbolic representation of an exchange reaction is AB + CD → AC + BD. An example
of an exchange reaction is the reaction of hydrochloric acid (HCl) with sodium hydroxide (NaOH) to form
table salt (NaCl) and water (H2O): HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H2O.

In a reversible reaction, the reaction can run in the opposite direction, so that the products are
converted back to the original reactants. An important reversible reaction in the human body occurs
when carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O) form hydrogen ions (H+) and bicarbonate ions (HCO3 −).
The reversibility of the reaction is indicated by two arrows pointing in opposite directions: CO2 + H2O H+
+ HCO3.

The pH Scale

The pH scale is a measure of the H+ concentration of a solution. The scale ranges from 0 to 14. A neutral
solution has an equal number of H+ and OH− and thus a pH of 7.0. An acidic solution has a greater
concentration of H+ than of OH− and thus a pH less than 7.0. A basic, or alkaline (al′kă-līn), solution has
fewer H+ than OH− and thus a pH greater than 7.0. Notice that the pH number and the actual H+
concentration are inversely related, meaning that the lower the pH. As the pH value becomes smaller,
the solution becomes more acidic; as the pH value becomes larger, the solution becomes more basic.

The normal pH range for human blood is 7.35 to 7.45. If blood pH drops below 7.35, a condition
called acidosis results. The nervous system is depressed, and the individual becomes disoriented and
possibly comatose. If blood pH rises above 7.45, alkalosis results. The nervous system becomes
overexcitable, and the individual can be extremely nervous or have convulsions. Both acidosis and
alkalosis can result in death.

Organic vs Inorganic Molecules:

As currently defined, inorganic chemistry deals with those substances that do not contain
carbon, whereas organic chemistry is the study of carbon-containing substances.

Inorganic substances play many vital roles in human anatomy and physiology. Examples include
the O2 and other gases we breathe, the calcium phosphate that makes up our bones, and the metals
that are required for protein functions, such as iron in hemoglobin and zinc in alcohol dehydrogenase.

Organic molecules

 Contain C and H
 Usually larger than inorganic molecules
 dissolve in water and organic liquids
 Carbohydrates, proteins, lipids and nucleic acids
Inorganic molecules

• Generally do not contain C and H

• Usually smaller than organic molecules
• Usually dissociate in water, forming ions
• Water, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and inorganic salts

INORGANIC SUBSTANCES:

WATER

 Most abundant compound in living material

 Two-thirds of the weight of an adult human
 Major component of all body fluids
 Medium for most metabolic reactions
 Important role in transporting chemicals in the body
 Absorbs and transports heat

OXYGEN (O2)

• Used by organelles to release energy from nutrients in order to drive cells’ metabolic
activities
• Necessary for survival

CARBON DIOXIDE (CO2)

 Waste product released during metabolic reactions

 Must be removed from the body

INORGANIC SALTS

• Abundant in body fluids

• Sources of necessary ions (Na+, Cl-, K+, Ca2+, etc.)
• Play important roles in metabolism

ORGANIC SUBSTANCES:

Carbohydrates are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms. In most carbohydrates,
for each carbon atom there are two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom. Note that this two-to-one
ratio is the same as in water (H2 O). The molecules are called carbohydrates because each carbon
(carbo-) is combined with the same atoms that form water (hydrated). For example, the chemical
formula for glucose is C6H12O6.
 The simplest carbohydrates are monosaccharides (one sugar), or simple sugars.
Monosaccharides are considered the building blocks of carbohydrates. Glucose (blood sugar) and
fructose (fruit sugar) are important monosaccharide energy sources for many of the body’s cells. The
reason monosaccharides are the building blocks of carbohydrates is that larger, more complex
carbohydrates are formed by chemically binding monosaccharides together. Disaccharides (two sugars)
are formed when two monosaccharides are joined by a covalent bond. For example, glucose and
fructose combine to form the disaccharide sucrose (table sugar). Polysaccharides (many sugars) consist
of many monosaccharides bound in long chains. Glycogen, or animal starch, is a polysaccharide of
glucose.

Lipids are substances that dissolve in nonpolar solvents, such as alcohol or acetone, but not in
polar solvents, such as water. Lipids are composed mainly of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, but other
elements, such as phosphorus and nitrogen, are minor components of some lipids. Lipids contain a
lower proportion of oxygen to carbon than do carbohydrates. Fats, phospholipids, eicosanoids, and
steroids are examples of lipids.

Phospholipids are composed of a polar region containing phosphate and a nonpolar region
consisting of two fatty acid chains. Because water is polar, other polar molecules can dissolve in it. Thus,
a polar molecule or region of a molecule, such as the phosphate head of the phospholipid, is said to be
hydrophilic (water-loving), or water-soluble. Nonpolar molecules do not dissolve in water and so are
called hydrophobic (water-fearing), or water-insoluble. Phospholipids are important structural
components of cell membranes.

Proteins. All proteins contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, and most have some
sulfur. The building blocks of proteins are amino acids. Proteins perform many important functions. For
example, enzymes are proteins that regulate the rate of chemical reactions, structural proteins provide
the framework for many of the body’s tissues, and muscles contain proteins that are responsible for
muscle contraction.

The nucleic acids are large molecules composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and
phosphorus. Both DNA and RNA consist of basic building blocks called nucleotides. Deoxyribonucleic
acid (DNA) is the genetic material of cells, and copies of DNA are transferred from one generation of
cells to the next. DNA contains genes, which determine the amino acid sequence, and thus the structure
of proteins. Ribonucleic acid (RNA) exists in three forms that are important for protein synthesis. In
chapter 3, we explore the means by which DNA and RNA direct the functions of the cell.