General Chemistry I - Q2 SLM

General
Chemistry 1 11
General
Chemistry 1 11
Quarter 2
Self-Learning Module 1
Electron Configuration and Orbital
Diagram
EXPECTATIONS
The module is about the electron configuration of an atom and its orbital
diagram. After going through this module, you are expected to:
1. write the electron configuration of an atom
2. draw an orbital diagram to represent the electronic configuration of atoms
3. recognize the importance of orbital diagram and electronic configuration of
atoms.
PRETEST
1. The electron configuration of an atom with an atomic number of 15 is __________.

a. 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s3 3p2 c. 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p4
b. 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p
2 2 6 2 3 d. 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5
2. Which of the following is a configuration of an element found in Group 2 of the

periodic table?
a. 1s2 2s2 2p5 c. 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p1
b. 1s 2s 2p 3s
2 2 6 1 d. 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2
3. What is the atomic number of an atom with the following electron configuration:
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d4?
a. 4 c. 20
b. 18 d. 24
4. Which of the following represents the orbital diagram of 4d 5 configuration?

a. c.
b. d.
5. Which of the following correctly represents the orbital diagram of Na? (atomic
number = 11)
a. c.
b. d.
RECAP
Draw the representation of an atom using the Bohr Model and the Schrodinger’s
Model.
Based on the past discussions about atomic models, how did the Bohr’s Model and
Schrodinger’s Model explain the location of electrons outside the nucleus?
LESSON
The number of electrons and how these are arranged in an atom can be used
to determine the chemical properties of an atom. These are usually dependent on the
atom’s number of valence electrons.
In the electron cloud model, we learn that electrons are arranged outside the
nucleus of an atom in a compartmentalized way. We can visualize this
compartmentalization using an apartment building. The whole building is the atom,
the floors of the building represents the energy levels, the individual rooms or the
apartment in each floor represent the orbitals while the occupants serve as the
electrons.
Similarly, chemists also devise a way to arrange the electrons of an atom. A
representation used by chemist to denote how electrons are distributed outside the
nucleus of an atom is called electron configuration.
The following is an example of this notation:
There are rules to consider in writing the electron configuration of an atom. These
are:
1. Aufbau Principle
The orbitals are arranged in order of increasing energy based on the principal
energy levels and the sublevels where they are in. The relative energies of these
orbitals are determined by the values of the following n+l rule. (“n” refers to the energy
level while “l” refers to the sublevels with the following numeric values: s=0, p=1,
d=2, f=3). The higher the value of n+l, the higher the energy of the orbital. At the
same time, for orbitals with the same value for n+l, the orbital with the lower value
for n has a lower relative energy. To visualize how these orbitals are arranged
according to this principle, you can use the electron configuration mnemonics by
following the arrows: from the tail end of the first arrow down to its head then to the
tail of the second arrows down to its head and so on.
2. Pauli’s Exclusion Principle
It states that no two electrons in an atom can have the same set of four
quantum numbers. This means no atomic orbital can contain more than TWO
electrons and these electrons must be of opposite spin if they are to form a pair within
an orbital.
3. Hund’s Rule
The most stable arrangement of electrons is one with the maximum number of
unpaired electrons. This minimized the electron-electron repulsions and stabilizes
the atom. Imagine having three dogs and three individual cages. The most ideal way
to cage these dogs to minimize quarrels between the dogs is to place each dog in one
of the cages.
To write the electron configurations and orbital diagrams successfully, you

must formulate a plan of attack and learn the following relationship: each main
energy level has n sublevels, where n equals the number of the energy level. (for 5 th
energy level and above, there are four sublevels available). These sublevels contain a
number of orbitals which can hold a pair of electrons in each orbital. This
relationship can be summarized in the following table:
Example:
Write the electron configuration of the element sulfur and draw its orbital diagram.
Step 1: Determine the number of electrons in the atom that needs to be distributed.
In this case, sulfur has 16 electrons because its atomic number is 16.
Step 2: Bearing in mind Aufbau principle, look at the electron configuration

mnemonics and proceed to distribute the electrons in the lower energy level first
before moving on to the next. Keep in mind also the maximum number of electrons
in each sublevel. The sum of the superscripts must be equal to the number of
electrons of the atom. Doing that, you will arrive with the following answer:
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p4
Step 3: Take in the individual configurations and draw its equivalent orbital diagram.
In drawing the diagram, bear in mind the Hund’s and Pauli’s Exclusion Principles.
You can do this in a more organize way by using a table.
Electron Configuration Orbital Diagram

1s2 ↑↓
2s2 ↑↓
2p6 ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓
3s2 ↑↓
3p4 ↑↓ ↑ ↑
ACTIVITIES
ACTIVITY 1
TRUE or FALSE. Read the statements below. Write TRUE if the statement is
correct, otherwise, write FALSE.
1. Electron configuration distributes the valence electrons of an atom.
2. The coefficient of a configuration denotes the energy level where the electron
is found.
3. In the configuration, 4p3, this means that there are 3 electrons in the p-
sublevel of the 4th energy level.
4. According to Aufbau principle, 2p sublevel should be filled first before 2s.
5. The electron configuration mnemonics guides us on how to fill the sublevels
according to Aufbau principle.
6. It is possible to have three electrons with different spins in one orbital.
7. Hund’s rule state that you can already pair electrons in an orbital even
though there are still orbitals that are unoccupied.
8. In the second energy level, there are two sublevels available: s and p
sublevels
9. The d-sublevel can accommodate a maximum of 10 electrons in its orbitals.
10. Electrons start to occupy the f-sublevel in the 4th energy level of the atom.
ACTIVITY 2
Write the electron configuration of the following elements. After that, using the table
presented in the examples, draw the orbital diagram of each element.
1. Neon
2. Potassium
3. Cobalt
4. Bromine
5. Cerium
WRAP–UP
Writing the electron configuration and drawing the orbital diagram of an atom
requires you to follow at least three principles. Can you summarize the statements
under these principles?
1. Aufbau Principle
2. Hund’s Rule
3. Pauli’s Exclusion Principle
VALUING
Following simple set of rules and principles can help us achieve something greater
in life. During this time of pandemic, our government imposed some regulations that
must be followed for us to comply with the minimum health standard set by the
Department of Health. Provide at least three of these rules and reflect on how often
you follow or violate these rules.
POST TEST
1. Which of the following is a noble gas configuration?

a. 1s2 2s2 2p3 c. 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p4
b. 1s 2s 2p
2 2 5 d. 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6
2. An element was found to have the following numbers of subatomic particles

inside the nucleus: 8 protons and 8 neutrons. What is the electron configuration of
this element in its neutral state?
a. 1s2 2s2 c. 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p4
b. 1s2 2s2 2p4 d. 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2
3. What is the atomic number of an atom with the following electron configuration:
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1?
a. 4 c. 19
b. 15 d. 25
4. Which of the following represents the orbital diagram in ground state of an atom
with 7 electrons?
a. c.
b. d.
5. The f-sublevel has seven orbitals. Which of the following represents how seven
electrons must be filled in the orbitals of the f-sublevel?
a. c.
b. d.
KEY TO CORRECTION
Pre-Test
1. B 2. D 3. D 4. C 5. B
Recap
Activity 1
1. F 2. T 3. T 4. F 5. T
6. F 7. F 8. T 9. T 10. T
Activity 2
Post Test
1. D 2. B 3. C 4. C 5. A
General
Chemistry 1 11
Quarter 2
Electron Configuration and Magnetic
Property of Atoms
EXPECTATIONS
The module is about the electron configuration of an atom and its magnetic
propery. After going through this module, you are expected to:
1. write the noble gas configuration (core method) of an atom
2. identify the number of valence electrons of an atom
3. determine the magnetic property of the atom based on its electron
configuration
PRETEST
1. An element with an electron configuration of 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p2 will have which
of the following noble gas configuration ?
a. [Ne] 3s2 3p2 c. [He] 3s2 3p2
b. [Ne] 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p2 d. [He] 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p2
2. Krypton is one of the noble gases that are found in group 18 of the periodic
apple. Which of the following represents the electron configuration using core
method of this element?
a. [Kr] c. [Ar] 4s2 3d10 4p6
b. [Ar] 4s 4p
2 6 d. [Ne] 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6
3. Iodine has an electron configuration of [Kr] 5s2 4d10 5p5. How many valence
electrons are there in this atom?
a. 2 c. 7
b. 5 d. 10
4. A diamagnetic material is characterized by its repulsion of magnetic field. Which

of the following orbital diagram shows a diamagnetic atom?
a. c.
b. d
5. Which of the following elements is likely to exhibit paramagnetism?

a. zinc c. calcium
b. nickel d. barium
RECAP
Recall the rules when writing the electron configuration of an atom and drawing its
orbital diagram.
a. Pauli’s Exclusion Principle

b. Aufbau Principle
c. Hund’s Rule
LESSON
CORE METHOD
Writing the electron configuration of an atom can sometimes be a tedious task

especially when the number of electrons is large. Writing the whole configuration can
take time. To solve this problem, there is another way of expressing the electron
configuration in a much shorter way. This is called the Core Method of Electron
Configuration.
To understand this, you must first take note of the configuration of all the noble
gases. These are elements that are found in Group 18 of the periodic table.
To make this more visual, you can place the noble gases in the electron configuration
mnemonics for easier understanding.
Let’s have an example. Write the
electron configuration of 17Cl using the
core method.
Step 1: Write the electron configuration

using the normal method. Use the
mnemonics as your guide.
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5
Step 2: Analyze the configuration and

look for the configuration of a noble gas.
In this case, the underlined
configuration is the configuration of
10Ne.
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5
Step 3: Replace the configuration by the symbol of the noble gas enclosed in a
bracket.
[Ne] 3s2 3p5
There is another way to approach this problem.
Step 1: Take note of the number of electrons to be distributed.
In this case, Cl has 17 electrons
Step 2: Look for the noble gas whose atomic number is the closest but should not be
greater than or equal to the number of electrons to be distributed.
Chlorine has 17 electrons, among the noble gases, the noble gas whose atomic
number is closest but is lesser than the number of electrons to be distributed is
Neon. (Argon, with atomic number of 18, though is closer to 17 should not be used
because it exceeds the number of electrons to be distributed)
Step 3: Write the symbol of the noble gas enclosed in a bracket. Then start on adding
electrons based on the mnemonics.
[Ne] 3s2 3p5
VALENCE ELECTRONS
Another thing that you need to understand is the concept of valence electrons.
These are the electrons that are found on the outermost energy level of an atom.
These electrons are important because they give us a deep insight about the chemical
property of an element.
Let’s identify the number of valence electron of 17Cl.
Step 1: From the electron configuration, identify the highest energy level of an atom.
This is denoted by the coefficient of the configuration.
[Ne] 3s2 3p5, from this configuration, the highest coefficient is 3; from 3s2 and
3p5
Step 2: Add the number of electrons in the highest energy level. This is denoted by
the exponent (superscript) in the configuration. This is the number of valence
electron of an atom.
From the configuration [Ne] 3s2 3p5, there are 2 electrons from 3s and 5
electrons from 3p. Therefore, there are 7 valence electrons in chlorine.
MAGNETIC PROPERTY
Another concept is the magnetic property of an element. In this module, we will

focus on paramagnetism and diamagnetism,
Paramagnetism (attracted to magnetic field) refers to the magnetic state of an atom

with one or more unpaired electrons. The unpaired electrons are attracted by a
magnetic field due to the electron’s magnetic dipole moments.
Diamagnetism (repelled by magnetic field), on the other hand, is characterized by

paired electrons. This causes the magnetic fields of the electrons to cancel out; there
is no net magnetic moment, and the atom cannot be attracted into a magnetic field.
To identify whether the atom is paramagnetic or diamagnetic, you need to draw the
orbital diagram of the element and look for unpaired electrons.
Let’s have an example. Identify whether 17Cl is paramagnetic or diamagnetic.
Step 1: Write the electron configuration of the atom
[Ne] 3s2 3p5
Step 2: Draw the orbital diagram of the atom
Step 3: Analyze the orbital diagram of the atom. Look if there is an unpaired electron
in the orbital. If there is, then, the atom is paramagnetic. If all electrons are paired,
then it is considered as diamagnetic.
In this case, you see that there is an unpaired electron in the 3p orbital.
Therefore, 17Cl is a paramagnetic.
ACTIVITIES
ACTIVITY 1
TRUE or FALSE. Read the statement carefully. Write TRUE if the statement is
correct, FALSE if it is not.
1. Core method uses the configuration of noble gases that are found in the
group 18 of the periodic table.
2. The core method configuration of argon is [Ar].
3. In the configuration 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p3, the configuration of Argon can be
found.
4. The number of valence electrons is the total number of electrons that can be
found in an atom.
5. The highest energy level in the configuration 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1 is 3.
6. [He] 2s2 2p2 and [Ne] 3s2 3p2 have the same number of valence electrons.
7. A configuration ending in 3p6 is most likely to be a paramagnetic.
8. Diamagnetism is characterized by the presence of paired electrons in its
atom’s orbital diagram.
9. Magnesium has an electron configuration [Ne] 3s 2. Therefore, Mg is
considered as a diamagnetic.
10. An example of a paramagnetic material is an element with the following
configuration: [Kr] 5s2 4d10 5p6.
ACTIVITY 2
TABLE COMPLETION. Fill in the table by supplying the necessary information.
Electron
Valence Orbital Magnetic
Element Configuration Using
Electrons Diagram Property
Core Method
Aluminum
Zinc
Calcium
Boron
Bromine
WRAP–UP
Complete the statement:
Electron configuration and the orbital diagram give us a lot of information with
regards to the physical and chemical properties of an atom. Among this information
are
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
VALUING
An atom can either be paramagnetic or diamagnetic in nature. This magnetic

property dictates how an atom reacts to a magnetic field. One will be attracted
towards it (paramagnetic) and the other will be repelled (diamagnetic). At the same
time, in life, a person should now how attract positivity and repel any negative
thoughts specially during this time of pandemic. Can you cite any activities you are
doing to keep a positive mindset during quarantine?
POST TEST
1. Iron has an electron configuration of 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d6. Which of the
following is the correct core method configuration of iron?
a. [He] 4s2 3d6 c. [Ar] 4s2 3d6
b. [Ne] 4s2 3d6 d. [Kr] 4s2 3d6
2. An element with an atomic number of 47 will have the following electron
configuration in ground state:
a. [Kr] 5s2 4d9 c. [Kr] 5s2 4d10
b. [Ar] 4s 3d 4p 5s 5d
2 10 6 2 9 d. [Ne] 4s2 3d10 4p6 5s2 5d10
3. How many valence electrons are there in an atom with the following electron
configuration: [Ar] 4s2 3d10 4p3.
a. 2 c. 5
b. 3 d. 10
4. Titanium has the following electron configuration: [Ar] 4s 2 3d2. How would you
classify this element based on its magnetic property?
a. diamagnetic c. ferromagnetic
b. paramagnetic d. ferrimagnetic
5. Which of the following electron configuration is likely to exhibits diamagnetism?
a. [Kr] 5s2 4d5 c. [Kr] 5s2 4d8
b. [Kr] 5s 4d
2 7 d. [Kr] 5s2 4d10
KEY TO CORRECTION
Pre-Test
1. A 2. C 3. C 4. D 5. B
Recap
Pauli’s Exclusion Principle states that an atomic orbital can contain no more
than 2 electrons with opposite spin.
Aufbau Principle states that the orbital in the lowest energy should be filled
first before filling up an orbital in a higher energy level.
Hund’s Rule state that the most stable arrangement of electrons is the one with
the most number of unpaired electrons
Activity 1
1. T 2. F 3. F 4. F 5. T
6. T 7. F 8. T 9. T 10. T
Activity 2
Post Test
1. C 2. A 3. C 4. B 5. D
General
Chemistry 1 11
Quarter 2
Quantum Numbers
EXPECTATIONS
The module is about quantum numbers. After going through this module, you
are expected to:
1. differentiate the quantum numbers
2. use quantum numbers to describe an electron in an atom
3. appreciate the importance of knowing the quantum numbers in relation to
the probable location of an atom’s electrons and some atomic properties.
PRETEST
1. Which of the following quantum numbers is used to describe the energy level of
an electron?
a. spin c. magnetic
b. principal d. azimuthal
2. Which of the following are the allowable values of ml if l is equal to 1?

a. 0 c. -2, -1, 0, +1, +2
b. -1, 0, +1 d. -3, -2, -1, 0, +1, +2, +3
3. Which set of quantum numbers uniquely defines one of the electrons in an

atomic orbital with n = 2 and l = 0?
a. 2, 0, 1, +1 c. 2, 0, 1, +1/2
b. 2, 0, 0, +1 d. 2, 0, 0, +1/2
4. Which of the following quantum numbers correctly describe the last electron of
calcium?
a. 4, 0, 0, -1/2 c. 4, 0, 1, -1/2
b. 4, 0, 0, +1/2 d. 4, 0, 1, +1/2
5. Which of the following sets of quantum numbers describes the last electron of an
element found in group 18?
a. 2, 1, 1, +1/2 c. 2, 1, -1, -1/2
b. 2, 1, 0, +1/2 d. 2, 1, 1, -1/2
RECAP
Recall the concept of electron configuration by providing the core method
configuration of the following elements:
1. Phosphorus
2. Platinum
3. Tin
4. Sulfur
5. Calcium
LESSON
Quantum numbers are numbers that are used to describe the probable
location of an electron in an atom. These numbers work like addresses for electrons
in an atom. For example, to narrow down the location of a person, you would have
to know his city address, barangay, street and street number. Quantum numbers
work the same way. To describe the location of an electron, you need to have the
following information: energy level, type of orbital, orientation of orbital and
orientation of electron. This information is represented by the four quantum
numbers.
Principal Quantum Number (n)
This quantum number describes the energy level of the electron. The energy of the
electron is determined by its average distance from the nucleus. The values of n
ranges from 1 to the shell containing the outermost electron of that atom. It is a
whole number integer (n = 1, 2, 3, etc.).
Example:
In the configuration 1s1 the n = 1 because that is the energy level the electron can be
found (recall that the coefficient in the configuration refers to the energy level)
Likewise, 2d9 has a principal quantum number of 2
Azimuthal or Angular Momentum Quantum Number (l)
It describes the “shape” of the orbital. It designates the sublevel which the electron
is said to occupy. It’s also an integer but its values are limited to a range of 0 to n-1.
The following is the value of l with respect to the subshell: s = 0, p = 1, d = 2 and f =
3.
Example:
In the configuration 1s1 the l = 0 because the subshell of the electron is s and 2d9
has an azimuthal quantum number of 2
Magnetic Quantum Number (ml)
This describes the shape of the orbitals in a subshell. Orbitals have shapes that are
best described as spherical, polar or cloverleaf. The values of ml ranges from –l to +l.
These values are summarized in the table below:
Example:
What is the magnetic quantum number of 1s1?
Step 1: Write the orbital diagram of the configuration:

↑
0
Step 2: Take note of the value assigned to the orbital. The last electron falls on the
orbital that has 0 on it. Therefore, the ml = 0
Example: What is the magnetic quantum number of 2d 9?

↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑
-2 -1 0 1 2
Take note of the value assigned to the orbital. The last electron falls on the orbital
that has 1 on it. Therefore, the ml= 1.
Spin Quantum Number (ms)
The spin quantum number refers to the “spin” of an electron in a given orbital. It can
only have two values: +1/2 and -1/2. Conventionally this can be interpreted whether
the electron is paired or unpaired in an orbital. If the electron is unpaired, the value
is +1/2. If it is paired the value is -1/2.
Example:
What is the spin quantum number of 1s1?

↑
Step 2: Observed that the last electron is not paired. Therefore, the ms = +1/2.
Example:
What is the spin quantum number of 2d 9?

↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑
Observed that the last electron is paired. Therefore, the ms = -1/2
ACTIVITIES
ACTIVITY 1
Fill in the blanks with the correct response.
1. The subshell with the quantum numbers n=4, l=2 is _____.
2. The ml values for a d orbital are ___________.
3. The allowed values of l for the shell with n=2 are ________.
4. When n=2, the possible values for ml are _________.
5. The lowest value of n for which a d subshell can occur is n= _____.
ACTIVITY 2
Identify whether the following sets of quantum numbers are valid or not.
1. 3, 0, -1, +1/2 ___________
2. 4, 2, +1, +1/2 ___________
3. 6, 1, +2, -1/2 ___________
4. 4, 3, +3, -1/2 ___________
5. 2, 1, +1, -1/2 ___________
6.
ACTIVITY 3
Fill in the following by supplying the necessary information.
Elecrtonic
Configuration Orbital Diagram of the
Element n L ml ms
Using Core Last Configuration
Method
28Ni
7N
54Xe
75Re
37Rb
WRAP–UP
Quantum Numbers give us an idea about the possible location of an electron inside
the atom. Aside from this, quantum number can give us an idea about some
properties of an atom such as ionization energy and atomic radius.
To summarize, you can refer to the following table:
VALUING
There are no two electrons with the same set of quantum numbers just like how two
persons have different life experiences. Give your insight about the following
quotation about the meaning of life:
“For the meaning of life differs from man to man, from day to day and from hour to
hour. What matters, therefore, is not the meaning of life in general but rather the
specific meaning of a person's life at a given moment.” - Viktor E. Frankl
POST TEST
1. It’s a quantum number that describes the shape of the orbital where the electron
can be found.
a. spin c. magnetic
b. principal d. azimuthal
2. Which quantum number/s do 2s and 2p orbitals have in common?

a. l c. n and l
b. n d. l and ml
3. Which of the following configuration is correctly described by the following set of

quantum numbers: “4, 3, 2, +1/2”
a. 4s2 c. 4d3
b. 4p6 d. 4f6
4. What are the quantum numbers for the last electron of carbon?
a. 2, 0, 0, -1/2 c. 2, 1, 0, -1/2
b. 2, 0, 0, +1/2 d. 2, 1, 0, +1/2
5. Which of the following electrons described by quantum numbers has the highest
energy level?
a. 3, 0, 0, +1/2 c. 4, 1, 0, -1/2
b. 3, 1, -1, -1/2 d. 4, 0, 1, +1/2
KEY TO CORRECTION
Pre-Test
1. B 2. B 3. D 4. A 5. D
Recap
Phosphorus:[Ne] 3s2 3p3; Platinum: [Xe] 6s2 4f14 5d8; Tin: [Kr] 5s2 4d10 5p2
Activity 1
1. d 2. -2, -1, 0, 1, 2 3. 0, 1 4. -1, 0, 1 5. 3
Activity 2
1. Invalid 2. Valid 3. Invalid 4. Valid 5. Valid
Activity 3
Post Test
1. C 2. B 3. D 4. D 5. C
REFERENCES
Ilao, Luciano V., Lontoc, Betty M., and Paderna Gayon, Edwehna Elinore S. General Chemistry 1.
Manila City, Rex Bookstore Inc., 2016
Kamenko, Anastasiya; Enriquez, Tamara and Lam, Mandy. “Quantum Numbers for Atoms.”
LibreTexts. Accessed August 10, 2020
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Suppl
emental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Quantum_Mechanics/10%3A_Multi-
electron_Atoms/Quantum_Numbers_for_Atoms
Quiming, Noel and Sacramento, Jireh Joy. General Chemistry 1. Quezon City, Vibal Group Inc., 2016
“Quantum Numbers.” Boundless Chemistry. Accessed August 10, 2020

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/introchem/chapter/quantum-numbers/
“Quantum Numbers: Chem1A, General Chemistry I.” Weebly.com. Accessed August 10, 2020
https://mrosechemistry.weebly.com/uploads/2/7/5/8/27587455/1a_quantum_numbers.pdf
General
Chemistry 1 11
Quarter 2
Lewis Structure of Ions and Compounds
EXPECTATIONS
The module is about the Lewis Structure of Ions and Compounds. After going
through this module, you are expected to:
1. draw the Lewis structure of ions and compounds

2. calculate formal charge
3. understand the importance of Lewis structure in relation to the properties
of the substance
PRETEST
1. An element with the electron configuration of [Ne] 3s2 3p3 will have the following
Lewis symbol:
a. b. c. d.
2. Silicon is found in the 2 nd column of the p-block. Which of the following is the
correct Lewis symbol for this element?
a. b. c. d.
3. Which of the following is the correct Lewis structure for NO 2-?

a. b. c. d.
4. Which of the following is the correct Lewis structure for CF4?

a. b. c. d.
5. What is the formal charge of phosphorus in PF5?

a. 0 b. 1 c. 2 d. 3
RECAP
Recall the concept of valence electrons by writing the number of valence electrons
of each elements:
1. Nitrogen
2. Calcium
3. Chlorine
4. Potassium
5. Bismuth
LESSON
What symbols do you encounter every day? What is the symbol for Pasig City?
for church? for school? for hospitals?
We also use symbols in Chemistry like Lewis Symbol. It is a symbol in which

electrons in the valence shell of an atom are represented by dots placed around the
symbol of the element. Each dot represents one electron.
In order for you to write the Lewis Symbol of an atom, you must first identify the
number of valence electron of that atom. In the previous lesson, you learned that you
can identify the number of valence electron of an element by writing its electron
configuration first. Aside from that, you can use the periodic table in identifying the
number of valence electrons.
You can use the group numbers of elements found in s and p blocks (also known
as representative elements) to identify the number of its valence electrons. The group
number is also the number of its valence electrons. Example: Elements in Group 1
have one valence electron, while elements in group 3 have 3 valance electrons.
(Helium is an exception because it has only 2 valence electrons).
To draw the Lewis symbol of an element, you need to write first the symbol of the
element then draw the dots around it equal to the number of the valence electrons.
The illustration below shows the Lewis symbol of some of the elements found in s
and p blocks (representative elements).
Lewis Structure is a graphic representation of the electron distribution in a

compound or an ion. The reason for learning to draw the Lewis structures is to
predict the geometry of a compound.
To draw the Lewis structure, you need to follow these steps carefully:
1. Determine the total number of valence electrons. Furthermore, if the molecule
is a polyatomic ion:
a. For an anion, increase the number of available electrons by the charge
of anion;
b. For a cation, decrease the number of available electrons by the charge
of the cation.
2. Write the skeleton structure of the compound by identifying the central atom
(this atom can either be the different atom or the atom with the lowest
electronegativity) and linking the remaining elements to it using a single line.
3. Try to satisfy the octet rule of the atoms by distributing the remaining valence
electrons as nonbonding electrons
4. Indicate the formal charges for each element. Choose the most favored
structure on the basis of the formal charges.
Let’s have an example:

Draw the Lewis Structure of H2O.
Step 1: Determine the total number of valence electrons.
Both H atoms have 1 valence electron each, while O has 6 valence electrons.
1+1+6 = 8 valence electrons
Step 2: Draw the skeleton structure. In this molecule, O is the central atom.
Attached the two H atoms to the O by drawing a line.
In the skeleton structure, we already used four of our valence electrons (a

line represents two electrons connected to one another)
Step 3: Satisfy the octet rule of the atoms by distributing the remaining electrons.
We already used 4 of our valence electrons, and we still need to distribute 4
electrons. We cannot place any more electrons in H because it is already stable
(H is an exception to the octet rule). So we have to place the remaining
electrons as nonbonding pairs in the O atom.
Step 4: Indicate the formal charges of the atoms. To get the formal charge, you can
use the following formula:
FC = # valence electrons – (no. of bonded electrons + no. of non-bonded electrons)

or you can look at it as this:
FC = # valence electrons – (no. of lines + no. of dots)
In the water molecule, the following are the formal charges:

HFC = 1 – (1 + 0) = 0
OFC = 6 – (2 + 4) = 0
HFC = 1 – (1 + 0) = 0
Since all the formal charges are zero, therefore, the structure is already stable.
The final Lewis Structure for water is
Let’s have another example:

Draw the Lewis structure of NO3-.
Step 1: The total number of valence electrons is 24
5 + (6 x 3) = 23 + 1 (because of the -1 charge of nitrate) = 24
Step 2: The central atom is N.
Step 3: We already use 6 electrons in the skeleton structure, we still need to

distribute 18 electrons.
Step 4: Indicate the formal charges of the atoms.
Since all the atoms have formal charges, you can remove some of those by
making a bond from the unbonded electrons of the O atoms.
By making the structure like this, we minimized the formal charges of the
atoms and at the same time, followed the octet rule for all the atoms. Lastly,
notice that if we add all the formal charges of the atoms, we end up with -1 as
the charge of the whole molecule. The final structure should look like this:
Knowing the Lewis structure of a compound or an ion is very important. It can be

used to predict the geometry, polarity and reactivity of compounds and ions.
ACTIVITIES
ACTIVITY 1. TRUE OR FALSE: Read the statements carefully. Write TRUE is the
statement is correct and FALSE if it is not.
1. The number of valence electrons of an element in d block can be easily
identified by looking at their column number.
2. The Lewis symbol shows the symbol of the element and the number of its
valence electrons represented by dots.
3. Aluminum is found in the third row, therefore, it has 3 valence electrons.
4. Lewis structure of a compounds can be used to determine some of its physical
and chemical properties.
5. Hydrogen atom can be stable even though it doesn’t have eight valence
electrons.
6. In the molecule of ammonia (NH3) the central atom is nitrogen.
7. There are 21 total valence electrons in the molecule of ICl 2-.
8. In a molecule, the higher the formal charge of an atom is, the more stable it
is.
9. The central atom of HCN is carbon.
10. The formal charge of all the atoms in the Lewis structure of PF 5 is 0.
ACTIVITY 2
Draw the Lewis structure of the following compounds.

1. CO2
2. NF3
3. ClO4-
4. NH4+
WRAP–UP
A Lewis structure is a graphic representation of the electron distribution around

atoms. The reason for learning to draw Lewis structures is to predict the number and
type of bonds that may be formed around an atom. A Lewis structure also helps to
make a prediction about the geometry of a molecule.
Complete these statements:
1. To write the Lewis structure the points to be considered
are__________________________________________________________________
2. To calculate the formal charge, we must
___________________________________________
VALUING
In a Lewis structure, you can see how different atoms share and bond their electrons
to be more stable and become a one unit that is called compound.
An analogy can be made in a school system right now. Let’s say that the individual
atoms are the students, parents, teachers, school administrators and government
officials. Can you think of ways on what these individual units should do to make
learning easier during this new normal of education?
POSTTEST
1. An element found in the 3rd column of s and p block would have the following
Lewis symbol:
a. b. c. d.
2. Which of the following correctly represents the Lewis symbol of an atom with the
following electron configuration: [Kr] 5s 2 4d10 5p5?
a. b. c. d.
3. O3 is the chemical formula for ozone which is a layer in our atmosphere that
protects us from harmful UV rays. Which of the following is the correct Lewis
structure for ozone?
a. b. c. d.
4. Which of the following is the correct Lewis structure for HCN?

a. b. c. d.
5. In the Lewis structure of CO2, what is the formal charge of carbon?

a. 0 b. 1 c. 2 d. 3
KEY TO CORRECTION
Pre-Test
1. D 2. C 3. C 4. A 5. A
Recap
1. 5 2. 2 3. 7 4. 1 5. 5
Activity 1
1. F 2. T 3. F 4. T 5. T
6. T 7. F 8. F 9. T 10. T
Activity 2
Post Test
1. B 2. C 3. B 4. D 5. A
General
Chemistry 1 11
Quarter 2
Molecular Geometry
EXPECTATIONS
The module is about Molecular Geometry. After going through this module,
you are expected to:
1. state the valence shell electron pair repulsion theory

2. describe the geometry of simple compounds
3. understand the importance of knowing the geometry of simple compounds
PRETEST
1. Which statement correctly describes the Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion
Theory?
a. The valence shell electron pairs are the lone pairs of the atom.
b. The valence shell electrons are given by the group number in the periodic
table.
c. The valence shell electron pairs repel one another and tend to stay as far
apart as possible.
d. The valence shell electrons are the outermost electrons of the atom that
are involved in bonding.
2. If there are 5 five electron pairs around the central atom of a molecule, these
electron pairs are in a _____________ arrangement.
a. Linear c. Trigonal planar
b. Tetrahedral d. Trigonal bipyramidal
3. The geometry of the molecule NF3 is __________.

a. Bent c. Tetrahedral
b. Linear d. Trigonal pyramidal
4. Which of the following species will exhibit tetrahedral geometry?

a. O3 c. PCl5
b. CCl4 d. CO3-2
5. It is important to know the geometry of a molecule because the geometry

____________.
a. gives the Lewis structure of the molecule
b. shows how the molecule looks like in 2D
c. determines whether the molecule is ionic or covalent
d. affects the physical and chemical properties of the substance
RECAP
Recall the concept of writing the Lewis structure of ions and compounds by placing
the steps in the correct order. Use letters for sequencing.
➢ Indicate the formal charges of the atoms.

➢ Draw the skeleton structure of the molecule.
➢ Determine the total number of valence electrons.
➢ Satisfy the Octet rule by distributing the remaining electrons.
LESSON
In the previous module, you learned how to write the Lewis structure of
compounds. Although Lewis structure shows how atoms bond, it is limited to a two-
dimensional representation of the molecule and does not show arrangement of atoms
and bonds in 3D space.
The 3D arrangement of the atoms in a molecule is usually defined by the relative

locations of atoms and lone pairs surrounding a central atom. These arrangements
usually resemble common geometric figures. These arrangements of atoms and
bonds in a molecule can be explained by the Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion
Theory or VSEPR Model.
VSEPR model states that a molecule will adjust its shape so that the valence electron
pairs (these can either be a bonding pair or a lone pair) stay as far apart from each
other as possible. This makes sense, based on the fact that negatively charged
electrons repel one another.
Molecular Geometries
The geometry followed by a molecule is dependent on the total number of groups
surrounding the central atom. These groups include atoms attached to the central
atom with bonding electron pairs or lone pairs of the central atom. The bonding
electron pairs and lone pairs are made up of the central atom’s valence electrons.
Steps to find the shape of the molecule:

1. Draw the Lewis structure.
2. Count the number of electron groups and identify them as bond pairs of
electron groups or lone pairs of electrons.
3. Name the electron-group geometry
4. Looking at the positions of other atomic nuclei around the central determine
the molecular geometry. (See how many lone pairs there are.)
You can also determine the molecular geometry of the compound by taking note of
its VSEPR notation. This notation is represented by the following letters: AXE. A
represents the central atom; X represents the number of bonded electrons or the
number of atoms attached to the central atom and E represents the number of lone
pairs in the central atom (in some references, the AXE notation can be referred as
ABE).
Below is the summary of the electron-group and different molecular geometries.
Let’s have an example. Determine the molecular geometry of H 2O.
Step 1: Draw the Lewis structure of the compound.
Step 2: Count the number of electron groups.
Electrons groups can either be bonding pair or lone pairs that are found in
the central atom. In H2O, there are four electron groups: 2 bonding pairs and
2 lone pairs.
Step 3: Name the electron-group geometry.
Based on the information, the H 2O molecules have four electron groups.

Therefore, its electron-group geometry is tetrahedral.
Step 4: Determine the molecular geometry.
Identify if there are lone pairs present in the molecules. In this case, H 2O has
two lone pairs. Considering this, the molecular geometry of H2O is bent.
The another way to identify its molecular geometry is by using the VSEPR notation.
After writing the Lewis structure of the compound, you can use the notation to
identify its molecular geometry by looking at the table presented above.
The H2O molecule has 2 bonding electron pairs and 2 lone pairs. Therefore, its
VSEPR notation is AX2E2. The molecular geometry with that notation is bent.
Knowing the molecular geometry, we can rewrite the Lewis structure so that it
satisfies the shape of the molecule. H 2O should look like this:
Let’s have another example, identify the molecular geometry of NH 3.
The Lewis structure for NH3 is written below:
Based on this, you can see that there are 3 bonding pairs and 1 lone pair in NH3. Its
VSEPR notation therefore is AX3E.
The molecular geometry with such notation is trigonal pyramidal. Rearranging the
Lewis structure, NH3 molecule should look like this:
Notice the different ways the bond between N and H are represented?
The line denotes that the bond is situated in a plane along with the
central atom. If the bond is a black wedge, this means that the bond
is coming towards you, while the dashed wedge is for bond that extend
back behind the surface.
Knowing the molecular geometry of a compounds can help determine some of its
physical and chemical properties. An example of this property is the polarity of the
compound. Understanding molecular geometry also helps scientist to understand
the shapes of more complex molecules such as proteins and DNA. The shapes of
these molecules play incredibly important roles in determining the jobs performed
by these molecules in our bodies.
ACTIVITIES
ACTIVITY 1
Fill in the blanks by supplying the correct term or phrase to make the statements
correct.
1. __________ of a compound gives us a 2D representation of how atoms are
bonded.
2. Molecular geometries of a compound in a 3D space can be explained by
__________.
3. The geometry followed by a molecule depends on the number of groups
surrounding the __________.
4. Electron groups in the VSEPR model can be identified either as a bonding
pair or a __________.
5. A model with 4 electron groups assumes the __________ electron-group
geometry.
ACTIVITY 2
Complete the table by supplying the necessary information.
Lewis Structure / VSEPR Electron Group Molecular

Molecule
Model Geometry Geometry
BF3
CO2
SeCl4
ICl4-
BrF5
WRAP–UP
To summarize the lesson, identify the factors that affect the shape of a molecule.
VALUING
According to VSEPR theory, electron groups in a molecule will position themselves

so that they are as far away from one another as possible. In our community today,
one of the rules that needs to be followed is the “social distancing”. What do you
mean by this? Give at least three benefits why this rule should be followed by
everyone.
POST TEST
1. According to VSEPR model, electron groups around the central atom of a

molecule repel each other. Which of the following is an example of an electron
group in a VSEPR model?
a. bonding pairs c. all electrons in the outer shell
b. electrons in lower shells d. lone pairs in the attached atoms
2. All the geometries listed below are examples of electron group geometry except
____________.
a. bent c. octahedral
b. linear d. trigonal planar
3. Applying the concept of VSEPR model, what is the molecular geometry of PH 3?

a. linear c. trigonal planar
b. see-saw d. trigonal pyramidal
4. The geometry of ClF3 molecule is best described as ___________.

a. linear c. see-saw
b. t-shaped d. octahedral
5. The following are the information that the molecular geometry can give about a
compound except ___________.
a. polarity c. bond formation
b. conduction d. shape of molecule
KEY TO CORRECTION
Pre-Test
1. C 2. D 3. D 4. B 5. D
Recap
1. D 2. B 3. A 4. C
Activity 1
1. Lewis structure 2. VSEPR Theory / VSEPR Model
3. Central atom 4. Lone pair 5. Tetrahedral
Activity 2
Post Test
1. A 2. A 3. D 4. B 5. B
General
Chemistry 1 11
Quarter 2
Polarity of Molecules
EXPECTATIONS
The module is about Molecular Geometry. After going through this module,
you are expected to:
1. define the concept of polarity

2. determine the polarity of simple molecules
3. understand the importance of knowing the polarity of substances
PRETEST
1. Which of the following molecular geometries would likely be a nonpolar

molecule?
a. bent c. octahedral
b. see-saw d. trigonal pyramidal
2. Which of the following linear molecules is considered polar?

a. H2 b. N2 c. O2 d. CO
3. Which of the following is a polar molecule and has a trigonal planar geometry?
a. CS2 b. BF3 c. PI3 d. COF2
4. The following molecules are polar EXCEPT ___________.

a. HF b. NI3 c. CH4 d. N2O
5. Which of the following substances would likely to be dissolved in water?

a. NCl3 b. CH4 c. CF4 d. CCl4
RECAP
Recall the concept of polar and non-polar covalent bonds by determining if the
bond between atoms in each item is polar covalent or nonpolar covalent.
1. H2 2. PCl 3. HCl 4. N2 5. NF
LESSON
In previous modules, you learned that a covalent bond may involve equal or
unequal sharing of electrons. Recall that when there is unequal sharing of electrons
in a bond, a dipole moment arises and the bond becomes polar.
Molecules can also be classified as polar or non-polar based on the distribution of

electrons in the entire structure. In general, the polarity of a molecule is based on
the resultant dipole moment. To determine the resultant dipole moment of a
molecule, it is important to consider both magnitude and direction of the dipole
moment. Because of this, the arrangement of the bonds or the molecular geometry
of a molecule is an important consideration in determining its polarity. For certain
molecules, even if polar bonds are present, the molecule may not necessarily be a
polar molecule.
The shape of a molecule and the polarity of its bonds determine the overall polarity
of that molecule.
If a molecule is completely symmetric, then the dipole moment vectors on each

molecule will cancel out, making the molecule nonpolar. A molecule can only be polar
if the structure of that molecule is not symmetric.
For molecules with a central atom and attached atoms that are the same type, there
are certain molecular geometries which are symmetric. Therefore, they will have no
dipole even if the bonds are polar. The following are the geometries with exact
cancellation of polar bonding to generate a non-polar molecule.
Let’s have an example. Determine the polarity of H 2O.
Step 1: Draw the VSEPR model of H2O.

Step 2: Write the dipole moment of the molecule by considering the electronegativity
of atoms in a bonding pair.
Step 3: Analyze the resultant dipole moment by considering the geometry of the
molecule.
In this case, H2O has a bent molecular geometry from a tetrahedral electron
group geometry. Considering the dipole moment and the geometry, we can conclude
that H2O is a polar molecule.
Let’s have another, determine the polarity of CO 2.
Step 1: Draw the VSEPR model of CO 2.

Step 2: Write the dipole moment of CO 2.
Step 3: Analyze the geometry and the bond polarity to determine the polarity of the
molecule.
In this case, CO2 has a linear geometry. This means that although there are
dipole moments in the bond, it will cancel out because of the symmetry in the
molecule. Therefore, CO2 is considered as a non-polar molecule.
Polarity of molecules can predict whether or not two or more compounds will mix
to form chemical solutions. The general rule is that “like dissolves like”, which means
polar molecules will dissolve into other polar liquids and non-polar molecules will
dissolve into non-polar liquids. This is why oil and water don’t mix: oil is non-polar
while water is polar.
ACTIVITIES
ACTIVITY 1
TRUE or FALSE. Read the following statements below, write TRUE if the statement
is correct, FALSE if it is not.
1. When electrons are not shared equally between two atoms, polar covalent
bond occurs.
2. A more electronegative atom attracts the electron less compared to a lesser
electronegative atom.
3. The partial negative end of a dipole is the atom with the highest
electronegativity.
4. A polar molecule has a partially positive and partially negative end.
5. The polarity of molecule is determined solely by the polarity of bond that
occurs in the molecule.
6. All molecules that have polar bonds are considered as polar molecules.
7. A geometry that is symmetrical usually cancel out the polar bond between
the central atom the attached atoms that are identical.
8. An unshared pair of electrons makes a molecule asymmetric.
9. BF3 assumes a trigonal planar geometry, it is considered a nonpolar.
10. HCN is a linear molecule, therefore it is a nonpolar molecule.
ACTIVITY 2
Identify the molecular geometry and the polarity of the molecules.
Name of Molecule Molecular Geometry Polarity of the Molecule

N2
CH4
NCl3
H2CO
O3
WRAP–UP
To summarize this lesson, identify the factors that influence the polarity of a
molecule?
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
VALUING
“Like dissolves like”. Usually, people like other people who are like them. The
similarities in their personalities make them easier to communicate with one another
and form bond. List down all of your favorite things and post it in the private group
of your section, then try to communicate with your classmates that have the same
interests just like you.
POST TEST
1. Which of the following is TRUE about polar molecules?

a. there is an equal sharing of electrons in a bond
b. the geometry of the molecule is usually asymmetrical
c. the bond between atoms involves double or triple bonds
d. the bond angle between the central atom and the attached atoms are the
same
2. The following are molecules that have identical atoms attached to a central
atom. Which of the following is considered a polar molecule?
a. BF3 b. NF3 c. PCl5 d. SF6
3. Which of the following tetrahedral molecules is considered a polar molecule?

a. CCl4 b. CH4 c. CF4 d. CH2Cl2
4. Describe the molecular geometry and polarity of OF 2 molecule.

a. bent, polar c. linear, nonpolar
b. t-shaped, polar d. tetrahedral, nonpolar
5. Oil cannot be mixed in water because of their difference in polarity. Which of the
following substances would likely to behave like oil when mix with water?
a. NH3 b. SO2 c. H2S d. CCl4
KEY TO CORRECTION
Pre-Test
1. B 2. D 3. D 4. C 5. A
Recap
1. NPC 2. PC 3. PC 4. NPC 5. PC
Activity 1
1. T 2. F 3. T 4. T 5. F
6. F 7. T 8. T 9. T 10. F
Activity 2
Name of Molecule Molecular Geometry Polarity of Molecule

N2 Linear Nonpolar
CH4 Tetrahedral Nonpolar
NCl3 Trigonal pyramidal Polar
H2CO Trigonal planar Polar
O3 Bent Polar
Post Test
1. B 2. B 3. D 4. A 5. D
REFERENCES
Helmenstine, Anna Marie. “Examples of Polar and Nonpolar Molecules.”
ThoughtCo. Accessed August 22, 2020
https://www.thoughtco.com/examples-of-polar-and-nonpolar-molecules-608516
Ilao, Luciano V., Lontoc, Betty M., and Paderna Gayon, Edwehna Elinore S. General
Chemistry 1. Manila City, Rex Bookstore Inc., 2016
Morsch, Layne. “Polarity of Molecules.” LibreTexts. Accessed August 22, 2020

https://chem.libretexts.org/Courses/University_of_Illinois_Springfield/UIS%3A_C
HE_267_-
_Organic_Chemistry_I_(Morsch)/Chapters/Chapter_01%3A_Structure_and_Bondin
g/1.12%3A_Polarity_of_Molecules
Quiming, Noel and Sacramento, Jireh Joy. General Chemistry 1. Quezon City, Vibal
Group Inc., 2016
“Shapes and Properties – Polar and Nonpolar Molecules.” LibreTexts. Accessed

August 22, 2020
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Introductory_Chemistry/Map%3A_Chemi
stry_for_Changing_Times_(Hill_and_McCreary)/04%3A_Chemical_Bonds/4.12%3A_
Shapes_and_Properties-_Polar_and_Nonpolar_Molecules
General
Chemistry 1 11
Quarter 2
Gas Laws
EXPECTATIONS
The module is about gas laws. After going through this module, you are
expected to:
1. define pressure and give the common units of pressure;
2. use the gas laws to determine pressure, volume, or temperature of a gas under
certain conditions of change; and
3. relate the properties and behavior of a gas to real life situations.
PRETEST
Choose the letter of the correct answer. Write your answers in your notebook.
1. Which of the following is not a unit of pressure?

A. Pascal B. atmosphere C. Joule D. millibar
2. How will the volume of 0.50 mol of a gas behave if the temperature is raised from
30oC to 60oC at constant pressure?
A. The volume will increase. B. The volume will be doubled.
C. The volume will decrease. D. The volume will be halved.
3. 0.750 L of oxygen gas is trapped at 101.3 kPa in a cylinder with a moveable piston.
The piston is moved and the gas is compressed to a volume of 0.500 L. What is the
final pressure applied to the oxygen gas if the temperature remains unchanged?
A. 101.3 kPa B. 0.0037 kPa C. 152 kPa D. 68 kPa
4. Underinflated vehicle tires contribute to unsafe road handling and to lower fuel
economy. It’s very important to check the pressure in vehicle tires before driving the
vehicle for a long distance. What gas law best explains this?
A. Charles’ B. Boyle’s C. Combined Gas D. Gay-Lussac’s
5. When filled with air, a typical scuba tank with a volume of 13.2 L has a pressure
of 153 atm. If the water temperature is 27 °C, how many liters of air will such a tank
provide to a diver’s lungs at a depth of approximately 70 feet in the ocean where the
pressure is 3.13 atm?
A. 36 L B. 645 L C. 4 L D. 677 L
RECAP
In your Junior High School Science, you have learned about the Kinetic
Molecular Theory of Gases. Can you still recall some of the concepts related to these?
Try completing the statements below.
The Kinetic Molecular Theory of gases (KMT) makes the following assumptions:
1. The __________ of an individual gas molecule is negligible compared to the
__________ of the container holding the gas. This means that individual gas
molecules, with virtually no volume of their own, are extremely far apart and most of
the container is “empty” space.
2. Because of the very great distance between them, the force of attraction between
the molecules is __________. The molecules are independent of each other.
3. Gas molecules have high translational energy. They move __________ in all
directions, in straight lines.
4. When gas molecules collide with each other or with a container wall, the collisions
are perfectly __________. This means that when gas molecules collide, somewhat like
billiard balls, there is no loss of kinetic energy.
5. The average kinetic energy of gas molecules is __________ related/proportional to
the temperature. The greater the temperature, the greater the average motion of the
molecules and the greater their average kinetic energy.
It’s nice to know that you can still remember the lesson about the KMT of gases.
LESSON
Gases are all around us, even during this time of the pandemic – in the
environment, at home, and in other places. Gas behavior and gas reactions are part
of everyday life. For example, photosynthesis is a reaction that uses carbon dioxide
gas, along with other reactants, to produce oxygen gas. High in the atmosphere,
ozone gas interacts with dangerous ultra-violet (UV) light to protect us from the Sun’s
harsh rays. Scientists study gases to understand how they react. This understanding
can help prevent further damage to the environment. It also leads to advances in
gas-related technology. Can you give more specific situations where you encounter
gases or you use it in your everyday life? Here are the few possible answers.
a. The air supplies us with the gases we breathe.

b. In the kitchen, wherein a gas (LPG–liquid petroleum gas) is used for heating or
cooking.
c. In carbonated drinks (softdrinks), wherein a gas (carbon dioxide) makes the drinks
refreshing.
d. In the automobile, wherein gases are burned in order to make the cars move.
e. In the hospital, especially during this CoViD-19 pandemic, wherein gases are used
to aid the breathing of patients. A ventilator (machine) provides mechanical
ventilation by moving breathable air into and out of the lungs, to deliver breaths to
a patient who is physically unable to breathe, or breathing insufficiently.
f. In air bags, medical anaesthetics, scuba equipment, and rocket engines are all
based on gas chemistry.
We are surrounded by an ocean of gas, right? Gases have played an important
part in the development of chemistry. In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries,
many scientists investigated gas behavior, providing the first mathematical
descriptions of the behavior of matter. Moreover, the molecular-level interpretation
of gas behavior given by the Kinetic Molecular Theory helps to explain the
macroscopic, or “larger picture,” properties of gases in the real world. One of the most
important properties of gases is their compressibility—how they react to the
application of an external force. In the next section, you will observe how gases
behave under pressure and you will learn about some interesting applications of
pressurized gases.
GAS PRESSURE (Atmospheric Pressure) and VOLUME
The earth’s atmosphere exerts a pressure, as does any other gas. Although we
do not normally notice atmospheric pressure, we are sensitive to pressure changes –
for example, when your ears “pop” during take-off and landing while flying, or when
you dive underwater. Gas pressure is caused by the force exerted by gas molecules
colliding with the surfaces of objects. Although the force of each collision is very
small, any surface of appreciable area experiences a large number of collisions in a
short time, which can result in a high pressure. In fact, normal air pressure is strong
enough to crush a metal container when not balanced by equal pressure from inside
the container.
Atmospheric pressure is caused by the weight of the column of air

molecules in the atmosphere above an object, such as the tanker car (Figures 2
and 3). At sea level, this pressure is roughly the same as that exerted by a full-grown
African elephant standing on a doormat, or a typical bowling ball resting on your
thumbnail. These may seem like huge amounts, and they are, but life on earth has
evolved under such atmospheric pressure. If you actually perch a bowling ball on
your thumbnail, the pressure experienced is twice the usual pressure, and the
sensation is unpleasant.
Figures 2 and 3: A dramatic illustration of atmospheric pressure is provided in this brief

video, which shows a railway tanker car imploding when its internal pressure is decreased.
Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Zz95_VvTxZM
You will also discover how gases behave when they are under pressure in a
closed system. A closed system is one with a constant amount of moles of a
substance. It is not open to the atmosphere. Gases in closed systems, from CO2 in
fire extinguishers to O2 in oxygen tanks, perform important functions in our lives.
Understanding the behavior of gases in closed systems is essential to our safe and
effective use of gases.
HOW DOES A GAS EXERT PRESSURE?
In a sense, it cannot exert measurable pressure in the same way that a solid
or liquid can. The pressure of a gas is determined by the kinetic motion of its
component molecules. Suppose hundreds of billions of gas molecules are in
random motion, striking the entire inner surface of their container. Each collision
exerts a force on the container’s inner surface.
HOW IS PRESSURE CALCULATED? Using this relationship, we can convert

from one unit to another. For example,
As you learned in previous studies, a pressure of 100.0 kPa is equivalent
pressure is defined in physical terms to
as the force exerted on an object per
unit of surface area (P = F/A). Note that 100.0 kPa × 760.0 torr/101.3 kPa
pressure is directly proportional to
force and inversely proportional to = 750.2 torr
area. Thus, pressure can be increased
either by increasing the amount of
force or by decreasing the area over
which it is applied; pressure can be
decreased by decreasing the force or
increasing the area.
Assume a student with a mass
of 51.0 kg is sitting on a chair. The
force the student applies to the chair is
500.0 N. If the surface area of the chair
seat is 0.05 m2, the pressure the
student exerts is
P = F/A = 500.0 N/0.05 m2 =
10,000 N/m2 = 10,000 Pa = 10.0 kPa
Standard atmospheric pressure at 0

̊C is equivalent to:
760 mm Hg = 760 torr = 1 atm = Figure 5: Source: OpenStax College, Chemistry

101.3 kPa
Aside from pressure, the other parameters (or variables/quantities) used to

describe gases are volume and temperature. The common unit for volume is the
liter (L), but the SI unit for volume is cubic meter (m3). The equivalence of the liter in
SI units is simple: 1 L = 1000 m3 , 1 L = 1 dm3 , 1 mL = 1 cm3
The common unit for temperature is degree Celsius (oC), but the SI unit is
Kelvin (K). The relationship between the units is: K = oC + 273
❖ RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PRESSURE AND VOLUME: Boyle’s Law
In 1662, Robert Boyle stated that the volume of a given amount of gas, at
a constant temperature, varies inversely with the applied pressure. In other words,
as external pressure on a gas increases, the volume of the gas decreases by the same
factor. This statement is known as Boyle’s law.
Boyle found that this relationship held true for all gases as long as the
temperature remained unchanged. As external pressure on a gas increases, the
volume of the gas decreases. The gas molecules are forced closer together. However,
if the volume of a gas decreases, then the gas molecules have to travel a shorter
distance before they strike the container walls, as shown in Figure 6. Since they
travel a shorter distance, gas molecules will strike the container walls more often per
unit time. This increases the internal pressure of the gas. (With an increased volume,
there are fewer collisions per unit time and a lower gas pressure is exerted)
Figure 6: BOYLE’S LAW

An animation showing the relationship
between pressure and volume when mass
and temperature are held constant.
Source: Wikipedia-The Free Encyclopedia
In other words, as the pressure of a closed system increases, its volume

decreases. We can write this relationship mathematically by using the proportionality
symbol, α. V α 1/P means that volume is inversely proportional to the pressure.
Mathematically, the proportionality sign (α) can be removed by introducing a
proportionality constant (k). V α 1/P , V = 1/P × k or PV = k
When you plot a graph of P versus 1/V, you will obtain a straight line. The
slope of this line gives the value of the proportionality constant, k. If the pressure is
tripled, the volume will decrease to one third of its original volume, such that
P × V = k. The value of k differs depending on the gas sample and the temperature.
Remember, this mathematical relationship only applies if the
temperature remains constant. For the gas sample at its initial conditions (i) or (1):
PiVi = k or P1V1 = k
If the gas sample is then subjected to a change in pressure, at its final
conditions (f) or (2): PfVf = k or P2V2 = k
Since the slope of the line (k) is constant, and since initial and final conditions
are both equal to k, we can write: PiVi = PfVf or P1V1 = P2V2
This mathematical relationship is another way of stating Boyle’s law.
Practice Problem 1: A sample of helium gas is collected at room temperature in a

4.50 L balloon at standard atmospheric pressure. The balloon is then submerged in
a tub of water, also at room temperature, such that the external pressure is increased
to 110.2 kPa. What will be the final volume of the balloon?
Required: Vf = ?
Given: Pi = 101.3 kPa, Vi = 4.50 L, Pf = 110.2 kPa • T = constant
Solution:
Algebraic Method Ratio Method
Since the least number of

significant digits in the question
is three, the answer is:
Vf = 4.14
Check Your Solution

• The units for the answer are in liters.
• The volume of the balloon has decreased due to the increase in pressure.
Now that you’ve finished practicing a Boyle’s law problem, take a deep breath
and relax. You have just illustrated Boyle’s law! When you inhale, muscles in your
torso expand your rib cage. The volume of your lungs increases. Since the pressure
inside your lungs is decreased with the expansion in volume, outside air under
higher pressure rushes in.
❖ RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN TEMPERATURE AND VOLUME: Charles’ Law

Jacques Alexandre César Charles (1746–1823), a French scientist, was the
first to fill a balloon with hydrogen. He was also interested in hot-air balloons, which
were being developed in France at the time.
Charles investigated the expansion rates of nitrogen, oxygen, hydrogen, and

carbon dioxide. He found that these gases all expanded by the same ratio. For each
degree Celsius increase in temperature, all of these gases would expand by a
certain fraction. This fraction was 1/273rd of their volume at 0 ̊C. For each degree
Celsius decrease in temperature, their volume would decrease by the same
fraction. Thus, if a gas at 0 ̊C were to be heated to 273 ̊C, its volume would double.
This held true when the pressure and the amount of gas remained constant. Figure
7 shows the expansion of the volume of gas in a container as the air inside is heated.
Figure 7: CHARLES’ LAW
An animation demonstrating the

relationship between volume and
temperature.
Source: Wikipedia-The Free Encyclopedia
Charles’ law states that the volume of a fixed mass of gas is directly
proportional to its temperature when the pressure is kept constant.
The algebraic statement of Charles’ law depends on using absolute, or Kelvin,
temperatures. This law is stated as V α T, where T is measured in kelvins.
Introducing a proportionality constant (k 1), this relationship can be restated
as: V = k1T or V/T = k1
This relationship only applies if pressure is kept constant and temperature is
given in kelvins. If a sample of gas is collected at initial conditions (i) or (1), this
relationship can be rewritten as: Vi/Ti = k1 or V1/T1 = k1
Suppose the gas sample is subjected to a change in temperature. Under the
final conditions (f) or (2), there will be volume changes such that: Vf/Tf=k1 or V2/T2=k1
Since both initial and final conditions are equal to the proportionality
constant, Charles’ law can be written as: Vi/Ti = Vf/Tf or V1/T1 = V2/T2
Thus, Charles’ law can be restated as: the volume of a fixed mass of gas
at constant pressure is directly proportional to its Kelvin temperature.
Practice Problem 2: A balloon is filled with 2.50 L of dry helium at 23.5 ̊C. The
balloon is placed in a freezer overnight. The next morning, the balloon is removed
and the volume is found to be 2.15 L. What was the temperature (in ̊C) inside the
freezer if the pressure remained constant?
Required: Tf = ?
Given:. Vi = 2.50 L , Ti = 23.5 ̊C Vf = 2.15 L • P = constant.
Solution:
Algebraic method Ratio method
Since the least number of significant

digits in the question is three significant
digits, the final temperature will be
reported to the same significant digits.
Tf = −17.6 ̊C
Check Your Solution

• The unit for the answer is in kelvins. • Kelvins have been converted to ̊C.
• The temperature of the balloon has decreased, which is reflected in its decrease in
volume.
As temperature increases, particles move more rapidly, striking the outside of
the thermometer with greater force and frequency. The kinetic energy of the particles
is transferred to the particles inside the tube of the thermometer. The volume of
the liquid inside the tube (usually mercury or colored alcohol) expands. This is
Charles’ law in our daily life!
❖ RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE:

Gay-Lusaac’s Law (sometimes referred to as Amontons’ Law)
Aside from balloons and syringes, most containers that are used to store gases
have a fixed volume. You know that temperature is a measure of the average kinetic
energy of the molecules making up a substance. If the temperature of a gas increases,
but the volume of its container cannot increase, what happens to the pressure of the
gas inside?
Extending the work of Charles, Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac discovered the
relationship between temperature and pressure acting on a fixed volume of a
gas. (Remember that for gases, Vgas = volume of container holding the gas.) Guillaume
Amontons was the first to empirically establish the relationship between the pressure
and the temperature of a gas (~1700), but Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac determined the
relationship more precisely (~1800). Because of this, the P-T relationship for gases is
known as either Amontons’ law or Gay-Lussac’s law. Under either name, it states
that the pressure of a given amount of gas is directly proportional to its
temperature on the kelvin scale when the volume is held constant. (See Figure
8) As you will learn later in this section, this relationship is very important for the
safe handling of gases under pressure in steel tanks or aerosol cans.
Figure 8: GAY-LUSAAC’S LAW
An animation demonstrating the
relationship between pressure and
temperature.
Source: Atoms Talk Blogs
P α T (if T is given in kelvins and volume and amount of gas is constant)

Introducing a new proportionality constant (k 2), this relationship can be
restated as: P = k2T or P/T = k2
If we assign Pi or P1 and Ti or T1 as the initial conditions, and P f or P2 and
Tf or T2 for the final conditions, the above relationship can be rewritten as:
Pi/Ti = Pf/Tf or P1/T1 = P2/T2
As you will notice, this mathematical relationship is very similar to that
of Charles’ law.
Practice Problem 3: A cylinder of chlorine gas (Cl2) is stored in a concrete-lined room

for safety. The pressure gauge reads 35.0 atm at 23.2 ̊C. An accidental fire in the
room next door causes the temperature in the storage room to increase to 87.5 ̊C.
What will the pressure gauge read at this temperature?
Required : Tf = ? Given: Pi = 35.0 atm , Ti = 23.2 ̊C Tf = 87.5 ̊C V = constant
Solution:
Since the least number of significant

digits in the question is three, the
final pressure will be rounded off to
the same number of significant
digits.
Pf = 42.7 atm
Check Your Solution

• The unit for the answer is in atmospheres. • Kelvins have been converted to ̊C. •
The pressure inside the cylinder has increased, as would be expected when the
temperature increases.
A can of hair spray is used until it is empty except for the propellant, isobutane
gas. On the can is the warning “Store only at temperatures below 120 °F (48.8 °C).
Do not incinerate.” Why do you think it has such warnings? The can actually
contains an amount of isobutane gas at a constant volume, so if the temperature is
increased by heating, the pressure will increase proportionately. High temperature
could lead to high pressure, causing the can to burst and this is a practical
application of Gay-Lusaac’s Law! (Also, isobutane is combustible, so incineration
could cause the can to explode.)
THE COMBINED GAS LAW

The 3 equations you have learned can be rearranged into an equation known as the
Combined Gas Law, which holds true for a given amount of gas: P1V1/T1 = P2V2/T2
The combined gas law reduces to Boyle’s Law, if temperature is kept constant
(i.e. T1 = T2): P1V1 = P2V2
It also reduces to Charles’s Law, if pressure is constant (i.e. P1 = P2): V1/T1 = V2/T2
It will also show that pressure of a gas is directly proportional to its absolute
temperature, if the volume is kept constant (i.e. V1 = V2): P1/T1 = P2/T2
And since the volume of gases changes when pressure and temperature change,
standards have been designed to allow a comparison of different gas volumes. The
average pressure of the atmosphere at sea level is taken as standard pressure (760
mm Hg = 760 torr = 1 atm = 101.3 kPa). The freezing point of water (0 ̊C or 273
K) is defined as standard temperature. Together, these conditions are referred to
as Standard Temperature and Pressure (STP). The normal conditions under which
we live are referred to as Standard Ambient Temperature and Pressure. These
conditions are known as SATP, defined as 25 ̊C and 100 kPa.
Practice Problem 4: The weather changes and a higher-pressure (103.0 kPa) cold
front (−25 ̊C) rushes into town. The original air temperature was −2 ̊C and the
pressure was 100.8 kPa. What will happen to the volume of the 4.2 L balloons that
were tied to the front of the house?
Required: Vf = ? Given : Pi =100.8kPa , Vi = 4.2L , Ti =−2C Pf =103.0kPa, Tf =−25 ̊C
Solution:
Remember to change the answer to

correct significant digits. The least
number of digits in the question was two,
so the answer must have only two
significant digits.
Vf = 3.8 L
Check Your Solution

• The unit for the answer is in litres.
• The volume of the balloon has decreased, as would be expected when pressure
increases and temperature decreases.
ACTIVITIES
ACTIVITY 1: Match the terms in Column B with the items in Column A. Write the
letters of your answers in your notebook.
Column A Column B
1. P1T2 = P2T1 A. Celsius
2. mmHg B. Charles’ law
3. P1V1 = P2V2 C. millimeter
4. N/m2 D. pounds per square inch
5. P1V1T2 = P2V2T1 E. Boyle’s law
6. V1T2 = V2T1 F. kiloPascal
7. kPa G. millimeters of Mercury
8. K H. Combined gas law
9. mL I. volume
10. psi J. temperature
K. Gay-Lusaac’s law
L. pressure
ACTIVITY 2: How will the unknown parameter/quantity behave in the following
situations? Choose among volume/pressure/temperature will increase,
decrease, or remain the same.
1. A sample of nitrogen, N2, occupies 45.0 mL at 27 °C and 600 torr. Describe its
pressure if it was cooled to –73 °C while the volume remains constant.
2. A sample of oxygen, O2, occupies 32.2 mL at 30 °C and 452 torr. Describe the
volume at –70 °C and the same pressure.
3. A sample of ammonia is found to occupy 0.250 L under laboratory conditions of

27 °C and 0.850 atm. Describe the pressure of this sample if the volume becomes
0.538 L at 0 °C.
4. A sample of gas has a volume of 30.0 mL at a pressure of 6.5 psi. Describe the
volume of the gas at a pressure of 11.0 psi at constant temperature.
5. A sample of carbon dioxide, CO2, occupies 0.300 L at 10 °C and 750 torr. Describe
the temperature if the volume of the gas becomes 0.321 L and 750 torr.
ACTIVITY 3: Solve these problems.
1. Using a glass syringe, a scientist draws exactly 25.5 cm 3 of dry oxygen at 20.0 ̊C
from a metal cylinder. She needs to heat the oxygen for an experiment, so she places
the syringe in an oven at 65.0 ̊C and leaves it there for 30 min. Assuming the
atmospheric pressure remains the same, what volume will the oxygen occupy?
2. The gas in the can of hair spray is initially at 24 °C and 360 kPa, and the can has
a volume of 350 mL. If the can is left in a car that reaches 50 °C on a hot day, what
is the new pressure in the can?
3. A sample of gas has a volume of 15.0 mL at a pressure of 13.0 psi. Determine the
pressure of the gas at a volume of 7.5 mL.
WRAP-UP
To summarize what you have learned, complete this paragraph.
1. __________, a property of most gases, is defined in physical terms as the
force exerted on an object per unit of surface area. 2. ____________ __________, on the
other hand, is caused by the weight of the column of air molecules in the atmosphere
above an object. 3. Other parameters (or variables/quantities) used to describe gases
are __________ and __________. 4. The volume of a gas increases as it is heated at
constant pressure is _________ law. 5. __________ law explains that the volume of a
gas decreases as the pressure is increased at constant temperature while __________
law explains that the pressure of a gas decreases as it is cooled at constant volume.
VALUING
Most of our time are spent now at home – surfing the net, watching tv,
eating, and cooking. What safety precaution should you and your family observe
when using your liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) tank? Relate your answer to the gas
laws discussed. Give 3 in your notebook.
POSTTEST
Choose the letter of the correct answer. Write your answers in your notebook.
1. A hypothetical reaction R occurs only at elevated pressures. It was noted that the
optimum pressure required for the reaction was 1,330 mmHg. This value is roughly
equal to: (1 atm = 101.3 kPa)
A. 1.3 x 10-2 Pa B. 1.8 x 105 Pa C. 1.35 x 108 Pa D. 1.8 x 102 Pa
2. A 25 g sample of dry air in a large party balloon at 20 ̊C occupies a volume of 20
L. If the temperature is increased to 40 ̊C at constant pressure, how large will the
balloon become?
A. 21 L B. 4,585 L C. 40 L D. 19 L
3. The pressure of a given amount of gas is directly proportional to its temperature
on the kelvin scale when the volume is held constant. This prediction is directly
based on:
A. Charles law B. Boyle's law C. Combined gas law D. Gay-Lusaac’s law
4. -270C is the same as
A. 300 K B. 246 K C. 270 K D. 127 K
5. Which of the following postulates of the Kinetic Molecular Theory for gases can
explain why gases exhibit pressure?
A. The molecules are in constant random motion.
B. The distance between the molecules is great.
C. The molecules collide with the walls of the vessel.
D. The molecular kinetic energy depends on temperature.
KEY TO CORRECTION
Activity 2
1. pressure will decrease
2. volume will decrease
Pre-Test (Assessment) 3. pressure will increase
1. C 2. A 3. C 4. D 5. B 4. volume will decrease
Recap (What I Know) 5. temperature will increase
1. volume, volume Activity 3
2. negligible 1. Vf = 29.4 cm3
3. randomly 2. P2 = 390 kPa
4. elastic 3. P2 = 26 psi
5. directly 4. T2 = 276 K
Activities (What's More) 5. T2 = 239.8 K, -33.4oC
Activity 1 Wrap-Up
1. K 6. B 1. Pressure
2. G 7. F 2. Atmospheric pressure
3. E 8. J 3. volume, temperature
4. L 9. I 4. Charles’
5. H 10. D 5. Boyle’s, Gay-Lusaac’s
Post-Test (What I Have Learned)
1. B 2. A 3. D 4. B 5. C
REFERENCES
Libretexts. “9.2: Relating Pressure, Volume, Amount, and Temperature: The Ideal
Gas Law.” Chemistry LibreTexts. Libretexts, July 29, 2020.
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/General_Chemistry/Book:_Chemistry
_(OpenSTAX)/09:_Gases/9.2:_Relating_Pressure_Volume_Amount_and_Temper
ature:_The_Ideal_Gas_Law.
OpenStax College, Chemistry. Open Stax College. Houston, Texas, March 11, 2015.
https://cnx.org/content/col11760/latest/.
Patalinghug, Wynona C., Camacho, Vic Marie I., Sevilla III, Fortunato B., Singson,
Maria Cristina D., et. al. Teaching Guide for Senior High School General
Chemistry 1. Commission on Higher Education. Quezon City, 2016.
Roque, Adolfo P. Senior High School Teacher Training Gr.11: General Chemistry 1.
Makati. PNU-CTD-FSTeM, May 2017.
Truong, Jack. “McGraw-Hill Ryerson - High School Chemistry 11 v4.Pdf.” Google
Drive. Google. Accessed June 20, 2020.
https://docs.google.com/file/d/0B6S8xw_R2yByWVVxNV80Yk4xZ1U/view
General
Chemistry 1 11
Quarter 2
Ideal Gas Equation
EXPECTATIONS
This module is developed and designed for Senior High School STEM
students. This lesson is about the use of ideal gas equation to calculate pressure,
volume, temperature, or number of moles of a gas. Specifically, you are expected to:
1. explain what is ideal gas equation;

2. calculate pressure, volume, temperature, or number of moles of a gas using
ideal gas equation; and,
3. recognize the importance of ideal gas equation in daily life.
PRE–TEST
Direction: Choose the letter of the best answer and write your answer on a separate
sheet of paper.
1. Which among the choices is not the correct value for the ideal gas constant?
A. 8.21L•atm/mol•K
B. 8.314kPa·L/mol·K
C. 0.0821 L•atm/mol•K
D. 36 L·torr/mol·K
2. What variables should be considered in solving gas problems using ideal gas
equation?
A. The STP values.
B. The constant mass of of the gas
C. The amount of gas and volume it occupied.
D. The four physical properties(n,P,T,V) of a gas
3. Ventilator is used for patients who have a difficulty in breathing caused by

coronavirus. A precaution on a balanced calculation of pressure toward other
variables such as number of moles of gas, temperature, and volume must be noted.
Which among the equation below could be used in computing the needed pressure?
A. P = nRT / V C. P = V / nRT
B. V = P / nRT D. P = VT / nR
4. What is the value of temperature at STP in an ideal gas equation?

A. 10°C B. 273.15K C. 298 K D. 22.14 K
5. Determine the number of moles of oxygen gas (O2) in a 30.0 L cylinder at STP.
A. 1.34 moles C. 134 moles
B. 3.14 moles D.13.4 moles
RECAP
You may find out that some of the questions are not familiar, don’t you worry
this module is designed for you to make the topic easier to understand.
Let us have a recap first!
Direction: Complete the table below by identifying the specific gas law that can be
applied to the given gas variables. Write your answers on a separate paper.
Relationship among Constant variables Gas Law

variables
V ∝_1_ n and T 1.
P
V∝ T n and P 2.
V∝n P and T 3.
You nailed it! Now let us try to figure out the gas behavior by combining all these
three expressions to form a single equation for the behavior of gases.
LESSON
“How do ventilators ease the breathing of the COVID-19 patients?”
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b5/Ventilators.jpg
With the amidst of pandemic coronavirus, patients with difficulty in breathing

or shortness of breathing seek immediate medical attention. Frontliners, with proper
advice from on-call doctors, give them either non-invasive or mechanical ventilators
to ease their breathing. These devices automatically supply the lungs with the
appropriate mix of air and oxygen without requiring the patients the effort to breathe.
Therefore, ventilators can offer the best chance of survival to patients.
The mixture of air and oxygen present in the cylinder of the ventilator could
be a good subject in studying the behavior of gases in chemistry. These gases are
shown in the figure above wherein they are represented by dots. Arrows are used in
the figure to show that these gases are in constant motion. Can you name some
physical properties that could describe the gases inside the cylinder of ventilators?
Yes, gases have the following physical properties:
Physical properties Symbol Units
Temperature T K
Pressure P atm
Volume V mL
Amount of gas n mol
For any sample of gas, if we know three variables cited in the table, we can
figure out the fourth variable. How do we do it? It is by using an ideal gas equation.
Ok, let us then elaborate more on this equation, apply it to some problems and
recognize its important application in our daily life.
The Ideal Gas Equation
The single equation for the behavior of gases when we combine the equations
of the Boyle`s, Charle`s, and Avogadro`s Laws is the so called ideal gas equation.
The ideal gas equation describes the relationships among the four variables P, V, T,
and n.
Equation 1 PV = nRT V ∝ nRT

P
Note that in an ideal gas equation, the product of PV is directly proportional

to T.
Ideal gases exert neither attractive nor repulsive forces on one another,
meaning they behave independently from each other. Although there is no such thing
in nature as an ideal gas, the difference in how real gases behave over reasonable
temperature and pressure ranges will not significantly affect the calculations. Many
real gases behave like an ideal gas at O°C (273.15 K) and 1 atm pressure. These
conditions are called standard temperature and pressure (STP). Under these
conditions, experiments show that 1 mole of an ideal gas occupies 22. 414 L.
Before applying the ideal gas equation to a real system, we must evaluate the
gas constant R. From equation 1 we can write:
R = PV/nT
Substituting the values; R = (1atm)(22.414L)
(1mol)(273.15 K)
R = 0.082057 L •atm/K •mol
For most calculations, the value of R could be rounded off to three significant figures
(0.0821 L•atm/K•mol), Table 1 shows the values of ideal gas law constant R.
Numerical Value Units

0.0821 L·atm/mol·K
62.36 L·torr/mol·K = L·mmHg/mol·K
8.314 kPa·L/mol·K
https://opentextbc.ca/introductorychemistry/chapter/the-ideal-gas-law-and-some-applications-2/
The ideal gas equation gives attention to the units and the temperature must be
expressed in Kelvin. The ideal gas equation implies that if you know any three of the
physical properties of a gas, you can calculate the fourth property. Thus we can
safely use the ideal gas equation to solve many gas problems like calculating the
pressure, volume, temperature, and the number of moles of gases.
Sample problem 1: Solving for the pressure using the ideal gas equation with known
pressure, temperature, and the number of moles.
Apply the ideal gas equation to solve for the pressure of the gas inside the ventilator
needed to ventilate a patient. Let say that the cylinder of the ventilator is filled with
1.35 moles of oxygen gas at a volume of 637 L with a temperature of 293.5 K.
Given: n =1.35 moles of oxygen T = 293 K

V = 637 L R = 0.0821 L•atm / K•mol
Required: P (atm) inside the cylinder of the ventilator = ?
Solution: Since the properties of oxygen in the ventilator did not
change, we can solve for the pressure by rearranging
Equation 1, we write P = nRT/V
Substituting the values and consider the significant figure
P = (1.35 mol)(0.0821 L•atm / K•mol)(293 K)
637 L
P = 0.0510 atm
Sample problem 2: Solving for the volume using an ideal gas equation with known
pressure, temperature, and the number of moles.
A pressurized disinfectant aerosol spray during pandemic has become essential in

killing viruses. Use the ideal gas equation in solving the volume occupied by 1.17
moles of nitrogen gas in a pressurized container at 7.1 atm at a temperature of 298
K.
Given: n = 1.17 moles T = 298.2 K

P = 7.1 atm R = 0.0821 L•atm / K•mol
Required: V (L) of the disinfectant aerosol spray = ?
Solution:
Step 1: Start by rearranging Equation 1.
V = nRT/P
Step 2 : Substitute the values and consider the significant figure
V = (1.17 mol)(0.0821 L•atm / K•mol)(298.K)
7.1 atm
V = 4.0 L
Sample problem 3: Solving for the number of moles with a given pressure, volume,
and temperature.
Using a bicycle now is the best alternative for transportation to maintain social
distancing. Use equation 1 to compute for the number of moles of gas in a bicycle
tire with a volume of 2.00 L, a pressure of 1.34 atm, and at a temperature of 33ºC?
Given: V = 2.00 L T = 33ºC
P = 1.34 atm R = 0.0821 L•atm / K•mol
Required: n (mol) inside the bicyle tire
Solution:
Step 1: Convert the temperature from Celsius to Kelvin
T = 33ºC + 273.15 K = 306.15 K
Step 2: Rearrange equation 1
n = PV/ RT
Step 3: Substitute the values and consider the significant figure
n = ______(1.34 atm)(2.00L)_______
(0.0821 L•atm / K•mol)(306.15 K)
n = 0.107 mol
Sample problem 4: Solving for the temperature with a given pressure, volume and
the number of moles.
Did you know that based on studies, an airconditioned area may increase the
risk of getting infected with the coronavirus? How? Aircon could keep the room cool
only by removing the humidity of the air. If this happens, it enables infectious
droplets to stay longer than they would outside, where humidity is higher.
An airconditioner's primary function is to transfer heat by absorbing it from
inside then releasing it outside the room. The refrigerant absorbs the heat, turning
it from liquid to gas, then flows to the compressor increasing its temperature and
pressure. The refrigerant gas flows to the condenser thereby releasing heat outside.
Find the temperature of a 3.74 L refrigerant gas, having 0.931 mol, inside the
compressor under the influence of a 6.805 atm of pressure.
Given:V = 3.74 L n = 0.931 mole

P = 6.805 atm R = 0.0821 L•atm / K•mol
Required: Temperature (T) in K
Solution:
Step 1: Rearrange equation 1
T = PV/ nR
Step 2: Substitute the values and consider significant figures
T= (6.805atm)(3.74L)________
(0.931mol) (0.0821 L•atm / K•mol)
T = 332.97 K ≈ 333 K
ACTIVITIES
Activity 1
Direction: Analyze each statement whether it conveys the idea of ideal gas equation.
Write TRUE if the statement is correct but if it’s false, change the underlined word
or group of words to make the whole statement true. Write your answer on a separate
sheet of paper.
1. In the ideal gas equation, the units of the variables should be the same as the
units found in the value of R.
2. All pressure units give the same value for R.
3. To evaluate the gas constant, it is necessary to use Celsius for the temperature
and it is conventional to use units of L for volume.
4. To compensate the increase in pressure and volume by blowing gas in a balloon
you must increase also the number of molecules.
5. When pressure is measured in kPa, the value for R is 0.0821L·atm/mol·K.
Now, use the ideal gas equation to solve worded problems. Do Activity 2.
Activity 2
Direction: Show a complete solution in solving the following gas problems using the
ideal gas equation.
1. A newly bought bicycle tire Given:
containing 0.60 mole of air
burst when the internal Required:
pressure reaches 8.25 atm, at Solution:
which the internal volume is
1.55L. To what temperature
must the air in tube be heated
to cause a blowout?
Given:
Required:
2. Calculate the number of Solution:
moles of oxygen(O2) in a 35.0 L
ventilator cylinder at STP.
Given:
3. Calculate the volume Required:

occupied by 5.0 moles of Solution:
nitrogen gas (N2) at 28°C and
2.05 atm in a disinfectant
aerosol spray.
4. A 3.50 g of solid CO2 is Given:
placed in a 4.00 L container at a
temperature of 300 K. When all Required:
the solid CO2 becomes gas, Solution:
what will be the pressure in the
container?
Let us test how well is your understanding in using the ideal gas equation. Do activity
3.
Activity 3
Direction: Analyze the following statements if ideal gas equation can be used to solve
for the unknown variable. Write (A) if it is applicable and (NA) if it is not applicable.
1. Determine the number of moles of a gas at STP.

2. Calculate the moles of neon gas at STP that occupies 72.5 L.
3. Determine the pressure of 12.0 g sample of gas which occupies 19.2 L at 293.15
K.
4. Solve for the pressure exerted by a 10.600 g of N 2 gas which is put in 5.00 L
container at a temperature of 340 K.
5. Compute for the temperature of a 2.53 CO2 gas occupying 2.63 L at 3.5
atmospheric pressure.
WRAP–UP
Direction: Complete the table by writing the formulas to be used for the unknown
variable using the ideal gas equation.
Unknown Variable Derived formulas Unit

1. Pressure (P)
2. Volume (V)
3. Temperature (T)
4. Number of moles of gas (n)
VALUING
To some, biking is the new norm now as means of transportation to maintain

social distancing. Analyze what makes tire get flat? Suggest tips to bikers to prevent
this flat tire as they travel from their home to the office.
Finally, you made it! Take your last step and good luck!
POST TEST
sheet of paper.
1. A gas law accounts for ___________ within an individual system.

A. temperature and volume
B. pressure and temperature
C. number of moles and pressure
D. moles of a gas, pressure, temperature, and volume
2. Which among the statements is not true?

A. Real gases can behave ideally.
B. All real gases are ideal gases.
C. STP values are 0 C and 1 atm.
D. The volume of a gas at STP is 22.4 L.
3. Which among the following expressions defines the ideal gas equation?
A. V ∝_1_ B. V ∝ T C. V ∝ n D. V ∝ nRT
P P
4. What is the value of pressure at STP?
A. 0 atm B. 1 atm C. 10 atm D. 100 atm
5. Determine the volume occupied by a 5.0 moles of gas in a tire at 25.0°C and
1.05 atm?
A. 116 L B. 120 L C. 116.4 L D. 116.56 L
KEY TO CORRECTION
Pretest Activities Wrap Up

1. A Activity 1 1. P = nRT / V
2. D 1. T 2. V = nRT / P
3. A 2. F 3. T = PV / nR
4. B 3. F 4. n = PV / RT
5. A 4. T
5. F
Activity 2 Posttest
Recap 1. 259.69 K 1. D
1. Boyle`s L 2. 1.34 mol 2. B
2. Charle`s Law 3. 60 L 3. D
3. Avogadro`s Law 4. 4.31 atm 4. B
Activity 3 5. D
1. A
2. NA
3. A
4. A
5. A
REFERENCES
Ball , David W., and Jessie A Key. n.d. ntroductorychemistry.
https://opentextbc.ca/introductorychemistry/.
Chandan, Gurmukh, and Marco Cascella. 2019. Gas Laws and Clinical Application.
August 24. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK546592/.
Chang, Raymond. 2004. "Chemistry 8th edition." In Chemistry 8th edition, by
Raymond Chang, 175-180. McGraw-Hill Higher Education.
Dewitt, Tyler. 2010. Ideal gas law introduction. Dec 13.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WhP6zJbSxec.
Education, Department of. 2002. Chemistry Science and Technology for the future.
Manila: Diwa Learning Systems Inc.
Inc., Geo Connections. 2012. How_Heat_Pumps_Work.pd.
https://geoconnectionsinc.com/resources/downloads/https://geoconnectio
nsinc.com/resources/downloads/How_Heat_Pumps_Work.pdf.
Key, Jessie A. 2014. the-ideal-gas-law-and-some-applications-2.
https://opentextbc.ca/introductorychemistry/chapter/the-ideal-gas-law-
and-some-applications-2/.
Laboratory, The Pharmaceutics and Compounding. 1996. Aerosols.
https://pharmlabs.unc.edu/labs/aerosols/physical_laws.htm.
Sherman, Don. 2020. how-a-ventilator-actually-works. April 3.
https://www.hagerty.com/media/news/how-a-ventilator-actually-works/.
General
Chemistry 1 11
Quarter 2
Dalton`s Law of Partial Pressures
EXPECTATIONS
students. The fourth lesson is about Dalton`s law of partial pressures to relate mole
fraction and partial pressure of gases in a mixture. Specifically, you are expected
to:
1. explain what is dalton`s law of partial pressures;

2. solve problems on Dalton`s law of pressure on mole fraction and partial
pressure of gases in a mixture; and,
3. recognize the importance of dalton`s law of pressures in daily life.
PRE–TEST
sheet of paper.
1. Which of the given choices will complete the statement on Dalton`s law of partial
pressures? “The total pressure of mixture of ideal gases is equal to ______________.”
A. Product of the individual pressure of gases
B. sum of the individual pressure of reacting gases
C. sum of the individual pressure of non-reacting gases
D. difference of the highest and the lowest individual gases
2. What variables are held constant in solving gas problems using dalton`s law?
A. Temperature and Pressure values
B. Mass of the gas
C. Amount of gas and volume it occupied
D. Temperature and volume of the non-reacting gases
3. Water displacement is an application of Dalton`s law of partial pressure, that is

used in collecting gas samples. Which among the formula below is used to solve the
partial pressure of the collected sample of gas?
A. V = P / nRT C. PA = XA x PT
B. P1V1 = P2V2 D. PTotal = PA + PB + PC
4. What does XA from the formula PA = XA x PT signifies for?

A. Mole Fraction C. Individual pressure
B. Total Pressure D. Sum of the individual pressures
5. What is the total pressure of the mixture of gases containing N2, O2, and CO2 with
individual pressure of 6.45 atm, 5.01 atm, and 4.1 atm, respectively?
A. 41.7 torr B. 15.56 atm C. 15.6 atm D. 16.0 atm
RECAP
You may find out that some of the questions are not familiar, don’t you worry
this module is designed for you to make the topic easy to understand.
Direction: Complete the table below by writing the derived formula from the ideal gas
equation in solving the unknown variable.

1. Pressure (P)
2. Volume (V)
3. Temperature (T)
4. Number of moles of gas (n)
Ok! Now let us focus on the individual pressure that gives to the total pressure of a
mixture of gases.
LESSON
“Is wearing face mask affects our breathing?”
An ordinance (Ordinance N. 12, Series of 2020) of requiring all people to wear

a face mask in public places to prevent transmission of Coronavirus (COVID-19) has
been imposed by the government. Wearing a face mask has pros and cons. One of
which is the difficulty in breathing that decreases airflow. Another is fraction of
carbon dioxide (CO2) that is previously exhaled is inhaled in each respiratory cycle.
Did you know that inhaling carbon dioxide is not good for our health? Yes because
this will lead to rapid breathing, rapid heart rate, emotional upsets, and fatigue.
In chemistry, respiration is one of the clinical application of dalton`s law. Do

you want to know more about what is dalton`s law is? Ok, let us elaborate and solve
some problems related to dalton`s law of partial pressure.
Dalton`s Law of Partial Pressures
Dalton`s Law of Partial Pressure says that the total pressure of a mixture of
gases equals the sum of the pressures that each would exert if it were present alone
at constant volume and temperature. Equation 1 shows the expression for this gas
law as illustrated in figure 1.
Equation 1 P Total = PA + PB + PC + …… Pn
where: PA is the pressure of gas A

PB is the pressure of gas B
PC is the pressure of gas C
Figure 1
The illustration in figure 1 shows gas A, gas B, and gas C exert their individual
pressure namely PA, PB, and PC. Each individual pressure is called partial pressure.
Partial pressure is the individual pressure of gas component in a mixture. Now if we
put all these gases in one container then the total pressure of that container is the
sum of the individual partial pressure of each gas. In this law, we are assuming and
treating these gases as ideal where their identities are irrelevant. Meaning that the
individual gases are non-reacting gases that don`t affect the pressures of the other
gases because the molecules are so far apart from each other and each molecule has
access to the entire volume of the container as if it were alone.
The mixing of gas A, gas B, and gas C does not change their individual average
kinetic energy. This accounts for a container of individual gas are of the same volume
as the mixture and that the temperature is also equal.
We can also relate the partial pressure of these gases to a mole fraction. Mole
fraction is the ratio of a substance in relation to the total moles present. Equation 2
shows how each partial pressure of a gas within a mixture can be computed.
Equation 2 PA = XA x PT
Partial mole Total
pressure fraction pressure
of gas A of A
Table 1shows the possible units and conversion factors used for pressure.
Source:https://www.nxp.com/docs/en/application-note/AN1573.pdf?&srch=1
Sample problem solving
Sample problem 1: Problem using equation 1 in getting the total pressure
Consider you are tasked to collect gases in a container. After sometime you
were able to collect these gases: nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, helium, and
argon. The partial pressures of the three gases are 5.00 atm, 6.00 atm, 7.00 atm,
7.51 atm, and 8.25 atm, respectively. What is the total pressure inside the
container?
Given: PN2 = 5.00 atm PO2 = 6.00 atm
PCO2 = 7.00 atm PHe = 7.51 atm
PAr = 8.25 atm
Required: Ptotal = ?
Solution:
Step 1: Use and substitute values in equation 1 to solve
total pressure
PTotal = PN2 + PO2 + PCO2 + PHe + PAr
PTotal = 5.00 atm + 6.00 atm + 7.00 atm
+ 7.51 atm + 8.25 atm
Step 2: Consider the significant figure
PTotal = 33.76 atm
Sample problem 2: Problem using equation 1in getting partial pressures with
percent by volume of gases is given.
People every summer vacation may choose to go to their provinces because of

the fresh air. Air consists of 78% nitrogen, 21% Oxygen, 1 % traces of gases at a 1
atmospheric pressure. Use those percentages to compute for the individual pressure
of each gas at STP applying dalton`s law of partial pressures.
Given: %N2 = 78% %O2 = 21%
% traces of gases = 1% Ptotal = 1 atm
Required: Partial pressures of each gas = ?
Solution:
Step 1: Get the individual pressure by considering
the percent volume, we write
PA = XA x PT
PA = Percent by volume of gas A x P STP
Step 2: Substitute the values into the formula
PN2 = 78 x 1 atm = 0.78 atm
100
PO2 = 21 x 1 atm = 0.21 atm
100
PTraces of gases = 1 x 1 atm = 0.01 atm
100
Step 3: Check your answer (optional) by
substituting the values in equation 1.
PTotal = PN2 + PO2 + PTraces of gases
PTotal = 0.78 atm + 0.21 atn + 0.01atm
PTotal = 1.00 atm
Sample problem 3: Use equation 1 in getting partial pressure of a gas with given
total pressure
Water displacement is one practical application of Dalton`s law of partial

pressures where a collection of gas is possible over water. Use equation 1 to solve
for the partial pressure of collected N2 over water at 18.5 °C, with a total pressure
of 746 mmHg and with water vapor`s pressure of 16.0 mmHg.
Given: P water vapour at 18.5°C = 16.0 mmHg
P total = 746 mmHg
Required: P of collected N2 in mmHg =?
Solution: We can solve for the P N2 by:
Step 1: Rearranging equation 1, we write

P total = P N2 + P water vapor
P N2 = P total - P water vapor
Step 2 : Substituting the values and consider significant

figure
P N2 = 746 mmHg - 16. 0 mmHg
P N2 = 730 mmHg
Sample problem 4: Use equation 2 (partial pressure and mole fraction)
Due to pandemic booked flights and reservations were canceled. Perhaps

going to beaches and enjoying scuba diving are just one of the missed gatherings.
Did you know that Dalton`s law helps divers calculate the effects of nitrogen and
oxygen at different depths or different pressures? Yes, scuba divers should take note
of the principle, when the pressure of a mixture of gases increases, the partial
pressure of each gas increases proportionally. It means that during the dive, the
partial pressures of gases in the lungs (carbon dioxide and oxygen) increase to levels
at depths greater than 10 meters. This will lead to a danger of nitrogen narcosis
making the body take in more gases than the body can cope. So divers must be
careful not to stay below10 meters for long.
Consider a mixture of 45.0 g oxygen and 45.0 g of helium used by deep-sea
diver has a total pressure of 8 atm. What will be the partial pressure of each gas?
Given: Mass Oxygen = 45.0 g Mass Helium = 45.0 g

P Total = 8 atm
Required: P O2 = ? atm P He = ? atm
Solution:
Step 1: Compute the moles of each gas
Mole He = Mass of He in grams/Molar Mass of He
Mole O2 = Mass of O2 in grams/Molar Mass of O2
He: 45.0 g / 4.0026 g/mol = 11.2427 mol
O2: 45.0 g / 31.9988 g/mol = 1.4063 mol
12.649 mol
Step 2: Get the mole fraction of Helium
XHe = Mole of He/Total Mole
He: 11.2427 mol / 12.649 mol = 0.88882
O2: 1.4.63 mol / 12.649 mol = 0.11566
Step 3: Rearrange equation 1 to get the partial

Pressures of helium and oxygen
PHe = XHe x PT
= 0.88882 x 8.00 atm
= 0.79938 atm ≈ 0.800 atm
PO2 = XO2 x PT
= 0.11566 x 8.00 atm
= 0.925 atm
Use these facts on Dalton’s law of partial pressures in answering the following
activities.
ACTIVITIES
Activity 1
Direction: Analyze each of the following statements whether it conveys the idea of
Dalton’s law of partial pressures. Write TRUE if the statement is correct but if it’s
false, change the underlined word or group of words to make the whole statement
true. Write your answer on a separate sheet of paper.
1. In Dalton`s law, it deals mainly with the pressure of gas mixtures.

2. Total pressure is the individual pressure of a gas component in a mixture
3. To use the equation of dalton`s law of partial pressures, one should note that the
number of moles of gases and temperature must be held constant.
4. Dalton`s law uses the individual pressures exerted by reacting gases to give the
total pressure of the mixture.
5. Mole fraction is the ratio of a substance in relation to the total moles present.
Now, use the ideal gas equation to solve worded problems. Do Activity 2.
Activity 2
Direction: Show a complete solution in solving the following problems using the
ideal gas equation.
Problem#1 Given:
1. You are task to collect gases
such as N2, O2, CO2, and Ar Required:
gas. The partial pressures of N2, Solution:
O2, and CO2 are 515 torr, 215
torr, and 98 torr respectively.
What is the partial pressure of
Ar, if the total pressure is 715
torr?
2. The partial pressure of N2 Given:
in a mixture of gases where
the total pressure is 1.00 atm Required:
is 400 torr. What is the mole Solution:
fraction of N2?
3. A mixture of air which Given:

consists of 26% oxygen, 68%
nitrogen, and 6 % traces gases Required:
at a 1 atmospheric pressure. Solution:
Use those percentages to
compute for the individual
pressure of each gas at STP
applying Dalton`s law of partial
pressures.
4. A mixture of 25.0 g oxygen Given:

and 65.0 g of helium used by
deep-sea diver has a total Required:
pressure of 5 atm. What will be Solution:
the partial pressure of each
gas?
Let us have a try out how well is your understanding in using the ideal gas equation.
Do activity 3.
Activity 3
Direction: Analyze each of the following statements if it supports the principle of

dalton`s law of partial pressure on the stipulated applications. Write (S) if it supports
the principle and (NS) if it does not support the principle.
1. According to dalton`s law on the principle behind scuba diving, pressure increases
under water, thus affecting the diver’s breathing process.
2. The principle behind water displacement according to dalton's Law of partial
pressures is that the total pressure in the container must be the sum of the pressures
of the gas that is collected and the water vapour.
3. Dalton`s law supported this idea: Pressure increases with increasing altitude.
4. With regards to respiration, dalton`s law stated that as the air warms it expands
to a larger volume.
5. Dalton`s law is behind the principle: At lower elevations the number of oxygen
molecules per breath decreases.
WRAP–UP
Direction: Complete the table by writing the formulas to be used for solving the
partial pressure, mole fraction, and total pressure of gases.

1. Total pressure (Ptotal)
2. Mole fraction (XA)
3. Partial pressure (PA)
VALUING
Wearing mask can cause some potential side effects to respiration as explained by
Dalton`s law. Will you still be using face mask considering its potential effects? What
is your stand on this? State your points in bullet form.
POSTTEST
sheet of paper.
1. Which of the following refers to Dalton’s law?

A. A gas law that accounts for temperature, and volume within an individual system.
B. A gas law that accounts for the number of moles and pressure within an individual
system.
C. The volume of a given amount of gas at constant pressure is directly proportional
to its absolute or kelvin temperature.
D. The pressure of a mixture of gases equals the sum of the pressures that each
would exert if it were present alone at constant volume and temperature.
2. Which statement is not true about Dalton’s law of partial pressures?

A. It deals with non-reacting gases.
B. It gets the total pressure of mixture of non- reacting gases.
C. It computes the total pressure at constant volume and number of moles of
gases.
D. Measures the total pressure of mixture of gases at constant temperature and
volume.
3. Which among the following choices must be added to get the total pressures?
A. Mole fraction C. Partial pressure
B. Constant values D. Number of molecules
4. The identity of the gases present in a mixture is not significant in Dalton's Law.
Why?
A. Because the identity of gases does affect the pressures of the other gases.
B. Because the identity of gases doesn`t affect the pressures of the other gases.
C. Because Dalton’s law of partial pressure is independent solely on the number of
particles.
D. Because Dalton`s law of partial pressure is dependent solely on the identity of the
gases in a mixture
5. Solve for the partial pressure of collected N 2 over water at 32.5 °C, with a total
pressure of 765 mmHg and with water vapor`s pressure of 29.7 mmHg?
A. 7.533 mmHg B. 73.53 mmHg C. 735.3 mmHg D. 735.0 mmHg
KEY TO CORRECTION
Pretest Activities Wrap Up

1. C Activity 1 1. P = nRT / V
2. D 1. T 2. V = nRT / P
3. C 2. Partial pressure 3. T = PV / nR
4. A 3. Volume and 4. n = PV / RT
5. C Temperature
4. non-reacting
5. T Posttest
Recap 1. D
1. P = nRT / V Activity 2 2. C
(atm,torr, kPa) 1. 113 torr 3. C
2. V = nRT/P 2. 1.90 moles 4. B
(mL, L) 3. P O2 = 0.26 atm 5. C
3. T = PV / nR P N2 = 0.68 atm
(K) Ptraces of gases = 0.06 atm
4. n = PV / RT 4. PO2 = 7.8 atm
( mol) PHe = 81.2 atm
Activity 3
1. S 2. S 3. NS
4. NS 5. NS
REFERENCES
Bhojasia, Manish. 2011. thermodynamics-questions-answers-daltons-law-partial-pressures-
gibbs-function. https://www.sanfoundry.com/thermodynamics-questions-answers-
daltons-law-partial-pressures-gibbs-function/.
Chang, Raymond. 2004. "Chemistry 8th edition." In Chemistry 8th edition, by Raymond
Chang, 186-190. McGraw-Hill Higher Education.
ChemTeam, The. 2001. Gas-Dalton. 11 9. https://www.chemteam.info/GasLaw/Gas-
Dalton.html.
Education, Department of. 2002. Science and Technology for the future - III Chemistry.
Makati City: DIWA LEARNING SYSTEMS INC.
Heeley, David. 2005. Understanding Pressure and Pressure Measurement. 05.
https://www.nxp.com/docs/en/application-note/AN1573.pdf?&srch=1.
Phelamei, Salome. 2010. wearing-face-masks-is-the-new-normal-know-these-tips-and-tricks-
to-avoid-common-side-effects. June 10.
https://www.timesnownews.com/health/article/wearing-face-masks-is-the-new-
normal-know-these-tips-and-tricks-to-avoid-common-side-effects/604223.
Portal, MCQsLearn Web. 2014. daltons-law-multiple-choice-questions.
https://www.mcqslearn.com/chemistry/daltons-law-multiple-choice-questions.php.
Writer, Staff. 2020. 5-side-effects-of-wearing-face-masks. May. https://taarifa.rw/5-side-
effects-of-wearing-face-masks/.
General
Chemistry 1 11
Quarter 2
Gas Stoichiometry.
EXPECTATIONS
This module is developed and designed for Senior High School Science,
Technology, Engineering and Mathematics (STEM) students.
After going through this module, you are expected to:
1. explain the different principles and concepts of gas stoichiometry.

2. apply the principles of stoichiometry to calculate the amounts (volume,
number of moles, or mass) of gaseous reactants and products.
3. appreciate the essence of gas stoichiometry in our daily life.
PRE–TEST
Choose the letter of the best answer.

1. What volume of O2 at 22.0 °C and 278 mmHg would be synthesized by the
decomposition of 8.15 g of KClO 3? 2KClO3(s) → 2KCl(s) + O2(g)
A.1.71 L B. 2.72 L
C. 2.52 L D. 3.45 L
2. What should be done first to determine the volume of the product from the
mass of the reactant?
A. Convert the mole of the product to volume of the product.
B. Convert the moles of the reactant to mole of the product
C. Convert the mass of product to moles of the product.
D. Convert the mass of reactant to mole of the reactant.
3. What must be applied to determine the volume of the product from the mass
of the reactant?
A. Ideal Gas Law C. Gas Laws
B. Dalton’s Law D. Newton’s Law
4. Which of these statements is NOT true?
A. Stoichiometric ratios are needed in calculating the volume of the product
from the mass of the reactant.
B. The number of moles of a gas can be calculated by its given mass with its
molar mass.
C. The mole ratios are the coefficients of the symbols in the balanced
equation.
D. The pressure of a gas can be directly calculated from the balanced
equation.
5. Quicklime (CaO) and CO2 are obtained via thermal decomposition of calcium
carbonate (CaCO3). Calculate the volume of CO2 at STP produced from the
decomposition of 152 g CaCO3.
A. 34.1 L B. 31.4 L
C. 83.7 L D. 38.4 L
RECAP
Let us try to review the concepts about your previous lesson on Dalton’s law
of partial pressures and mole fraction.
Direction: Identify what is being described. Write your answer on the blank.
__________1. The quantity that must be added to get the total pressure of gases.
__________2. It is represented by XA in the equation PA = XA x PT
________________ 3. He stated that the pressure of each gas contributes in the total
pressure of the gas mixture.
__________4. This law states that the number of moles of an ideal gas is directly
proportional to pressure and volume.
___________5. The value of temperature at STP.

LESSON
In studying stoichiometry, we used to deal with relationships between

amounts (in moles) and masses (in grams) of solid or liquid reactants and products.
What if the nature of the reactants and products is in the form of gas? Can we apply
the same strategies? Yes, we can use the relationships focusing between
amounts(moles) and volume to answer problems involving gases. Study the figure
below that depicts the process on performing stoichiometric calculation involving
gases.
Amount of Amount of
reactant Moles of Moles of product
(mass or reactant product (mass or
volume) volume)
Moreover, this amount of a gas, can be converted to pressure, volume or

temperature with an application of Ideal Gas Law. We may recall that the equation
for Ideal Gas Law is this: PV = nRT where P is pressure, V is volume, n is the
number of moles, T is temperature and R is the gas constant.
Let us try to answer problem involving gas stoichiometry.
Problem I.
Sodium azide (NaN3) is known to be a component in some automobile air bags
as a car safety feature. An impact caused by a collision triggers the reaction as shown
by this equation:
2NaN3(s) → 2Na(s) + 3N2 (g)
Calculate the volume of N2 gas) if 78.0 g of NaN3 is generated under the

conditions of 70 o C and 438 mmHg.
Strategy:
(a) Considering the balanced reaction, we can deduce that in every 2 moles of NaN 3
there is 2 moles of N2(g) is produced. Therefore, the conversion factor that we will use
in answering the problem is this:
3 mol N2
2 mol NaN3
(b) Recall that the given is the mass of NaN3, starting from that we can calculate the
moles of NaN3 using its molar mass.
(c) Lastly, we can use the moles of N2 in computing its volume using the ideal gas
equation
Solution: Let us follow the sequence below in answering the problem
mass NaN3 → moles of NaN3 → moles N2 → volume of N2
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑁𝑎𝑁3 3 mol N2

𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑁2 = 78.0 𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑁𝑎𝑁3 × × =1.80 mol N2
65.02 𝑔 𝑁𝑎𝑁3 2 mol NaN3
Substituting moles of N2 in the ideal gas equation, we could get the volume of N 2
𝐿 𝑎𝑡𝑚
𝑛𝑅𝑇 1.80 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁2 × 0.082057 𝑚𝑜𝑙 − 𝐾 (70 + 273.15)K
𝑉= =
𝑃 1 𝑎𝑡𝑚
438 𝑚𝑚𝐻𝑔 × 760 𝑚𝑚𝐻𝑔
= 87.9 L
Take note that we need to convert the given pressure and temperature with the unit
of mmHg and K to atm since these are the units used in the gas constant (R). Kindly
note this conversion: 1 atm= 769 mmHg K= °C + 273.15
Problem II. Calculate the amount of NaN3 in grams that decomposed in an airbag
that has a volume 78 L filled with nitrogen gas at 4.02 atm and 30 °C.
2NaN3(s) → 2Na(s) + 3N 2 (g)
Strategy
(a) Try to check the given to answer the problem. We have pressure, temperature and
volume that we could use to calculate the moles of nitrogen gas (N 2) using the ideal
gas equation.
(b) Upon determining the moles of N2(g), we can compute for the moles of NaN3 with
stoichiometric calculations.
(c) The final step is to convert the moles of NaN3 to mass of NaN3 with the help of the
molar mass of NaN3.
Solution:
Let us follow the sequence below in answering the problem
moles of N2 → moles NaN3 → mass of moles NaN3
𝑃𝑉 4.02 𝑎𝑡𝑚 × 78 𝐿
𝑛= = = 12.6 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓𝑁2
𝑅𝑇 0.082057 𝐿 𝑎𝑡𝑚 (30 + 273.15)K
𝑚𝑜𝑙 − 𝐾
2 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁𝑎𝑁3
12.6 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑁2 × = 8.4 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁𝑎𝑁3
3 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁2
65.0 𝑔 𝑁𝑎𝑁3
8.4 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁𝑎𝑁3 × = 𝟓𝟒𝟔 𝒈 𝑵𝒂𝑵𝟑
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁𝑎𝑁3
Problem III. Determine the amount of sodium azide (in grams) needed to have 67.2
L of N2 (g) at 37 °C at 659 mmHg.
2NaN3(s) → 2Na(s) + 3N 2 (g)
Strategy
Like the first two problems, answering this problem involves both stoichiometry
and ideal gas equation. Let us take note of the chemical equation of the reaction
which tells us the stoichiometric relationship between NaN 3 and N2. We can use the
ideal gas equation to relate the given volume of N 2 gas at STP to the moles of N2 and
from that we would relate it to the moles of NaN 3. Given the moles of NaN3, we can
obtain the amount of NaN3 in grams.
Solution
1 atm
P = 659 mmHg × = 0.867 atm
760 mmHg
V= 67.2 L
T= (37+ 273.15)
K = 310.15 K
n=?
𝑃𝑉
n=
𝑅𝑇
Substituting the values, we get
( 0.867 𝑎𝑡𝑚)(67.2 𝐿)
𝑛= = 9.13 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻2
𝐿 𝑎𝑡𝑚
(0.082057 ) (310.15 𝐾)
𝑚𝑜𝑙 − 𝐾
From the obtained moles of H2, we could calculate the mole of NaN3
2 mol NaN3
9.13 mol H2 × = 6.09 mol NaN3
3 mol H2
Now we can calculate the amount of NaN3 in grams.
65.01 g NaN3
6.09 mol NaN3 × = 396 g of Na𝑁3
1 mol NaN3
ACTIVITIES
Activity 1. Directions: Perform the needed calculations for the following problems
and supply the missing answer on the table below. Show your complete calculations
in a clean sheet of paper.
1. Potassium chlorate (KClO3) undergoes thermal decomposition yielding potassium

chloride (KCl) and oxygen gas O2(g):
2KClO3(s) → 2KCl(s) + 3O2(g)
Suppose you heat 0.0100 mol of potassium chlorate, KClO3, in a test tube. How many
liters of oxygen can you produce at 298 K and 1.02 atm?
Pressure Volume (L) Temperature (K) Number of moles Mass (g)

(Atm) Reactant/Product
1.02 atm 0.0100 NA
2. If 4.50 g of hydrogen peroxide is placed on a sealed glass container, with pressure

of 10.0 atm at 550 K. What is the volume of the oxygen produced inside the glass
container? (Molar Mass of H2 O2 = 34.016 𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙)
2H2 O2 → 2H2 O + O2
Pressure Volume (L) Temperature (K) Number of moles Mass (g)

(Atm) Reactant/Product
550 K NA 4.50 g
Activity 2. Perform the needed calculations for the problem and show your complete
calculations in a clean sheet of paper. Box your final answer.
1.Metabolic breakdown happens when glucose (C6H12O6) is reacted with oxygen gas
O2(g) forming carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O) as shown by the equation below:
C6H12O6 (s) + 6O2(g) →6CO2(g) +6 H2O (l)
Determine the volume of CO2 produced at 37 °C and 1.00 atm when 5.60 g of glucose
is used up in the reaction. Molar mass: Glucose=180.15 g/mol
2. Calculate the mass in grams of hydrogen chloride produced when 5.6 L of

molecular hydrogen (H2) measured at STP react with an excess of molecular chlorine
gas Cl2(g).
WRAP–UP
Directions: Complete the table below by writing the derived equation for the unknown
variable.
Unknown Gas Variable Derived equation Unit

Pressure
Mass of product
Mole of product
VALUING
Have you ever dreamed of having your own car in the future? From the
simplest and readily available units to the luxurious and rare car available in the
market. But no matter how elegant or expensive these cars are, the main priority of
the car manufacturers is equipping their cars with safety features. These includes
seatbelts, rear mirrors, anti-lock brakes and other available technology. But for this
discussion, we will focus on airbags.
Airbags are technically a bag that is full of air that just pops out when
accidents happen. It is often coming out in the steering wheel, as well as in the front
of passenger location. When inflated, it contains nitrogen gas which is generated
from a reaction with sodium azide. Products such as nitrogen gas which fills the bag
and sodium metal which is neutralized by the reaction of potassium nitrate are
produced once the airbag works.
Keep in mind that the reaction that causes the air bag to function well
especially during accidents is anchored with the concepts of gas stoichiometry. The
amount of reactants in the bag should be calculated to ensure that there is an
enough amount for the reaction to happened once there is a vehicular accident.
What do you think will happen if the car manufacturer did not consider the gas
stoichiometry principles governing how the airbags work?
POST TEST
Choose the letter of the best answer.
1. Gas stoichiometry is anchored by what physical parameters?
A. SATP B. SAP C. STP D. SPT
2. Which of the following process can be used as a guide in determining the moles
of a product from the given the mass of the reactant?
A. Mass of the reactant → Molar mass of reactant → Mole Ratio → Moles of Product
B. Mass of the reactant → Mole Ratio → Molar mass reactant → Moles of Product
C. Mass of the reactant → Molar mass of product → Mole Ratio → Moles of Product
D. Mass of the reactant → Mole Ratio → Molar mass product → Moles of Product
3. Which of the following is the right derived equation for determining the
temperature of a gas?
𝑛𝑅𝑇 𝑛𝑅𝑇 𝑛𝑅 𝑃𝑉
A. 𝑉
B. 𝑃
C. 𝑃𝑉
D. 𝑛𝑅
4-5 Consider the Chemical equation below,

𝑂3 (𝑔) + 𝐻2 𝑂 (𝑙 ) → 𝐻2 (𝑔) + 2𝑂2 (𝑔)
4. How much moles of 𝑂3 gas is formed when 64.g of 𝑂2 gas reacts? (Molar mass 𝑂2
= 32 g/mol)
A. 1.0 mol B. 2.0 mol C. 3.0 mol D. 0.50 mol
5. What is the volume of the 𝑂3 gas inside a container at STP?

A. 0.00030 L B. 3300 L C. 22.4 L D. 1.0 L
KEY TO CORRECTION
REFERENCES
Brown, Theodore L., H. Eugene LeMay Jr., Bruce E. Bursten, and Catherine J. Murphy. 2009.
Chemistry: The Central Science. 11th. New Jersey: Pearson Education Inc.
Chang, Raymond. 2008. Chemistry. 9th. New York: Mc-Graw Hill.
n.d. cK-12. Accessed August 5, 2020. https://www.ck12.org/chemistry/gas-
stoichiometry/rwa/Saved-by-an-Air-Bag/.
Ebbing, Darrell D., and Steven D. Gammon. 2009. General Chemistry. 9th. Boston, Massachusetts:
Houghton Mifflin Company.
General
Chemistry 1
11
Quarter 2
Graham’s Law of Effusion
EXPECTATIONS
After going through with this self learning module you are expected to:
1. Explain the properties and behaviour of gases.
2. Differentiate diffusion from effusion.
3. State Graham’s law
4. Solve problems involving Graham’s law.
PRETEST
Direction: Choose the letter of the best answer:
1. The ability of the gas to pass through a small opening is
A. Diffusibility C. Effusion
B. Diffusion D. Expansibility
2. The scent of perfume in a room is due to

A. Condensation C. Evaporation
B. Diffusion D. Sublimation
3. The Graham’s law of effusion is given by
A. C. V/n = K
B. P1 = P1 + P2 + P3 … D. PV1 = K
4. It takes 243 s for 4.46 × 10 -5 mol Xe to effuse through a tiny hole. Under
the same conditions, how long will it take 4.46 × 10 -5 mol Ne to effuse?
A. 90.3 sec. B. 93.5 sec. C. 95.3 sec. D. 90.5 sec.
5. How much faster does hydrogen escape through a porous container than
sulfur dioxide?
A. 5.637 B. 6.37 C. 56.37 D. 0.5637

RECAP
Identify the terms. Use the word list as guide.
barometer Pascal pressure elastic diffusion
Kinetic molecular theory temperature
TERM DEFINITION
1. Describes a collision in which no kinetic energy is lost.
2. Describes the behaviour of gases in terms of particles in
motion.
3. A measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles in a
sample of matter.
4. Force per unit area
5. Instrument used to measure pressure
6. Equal to force of one newton per square meter
7. The term used to describe the movement of one material
towards another.
LESSON
When somebody is cooking in the kitchen, you can smell the food being cooked.
You know for a fact that gaseous molecules can quickly spread throughout a room, as
evidenced by the pleasant aroma of the food that soon reaches your nose. The odor of
the food being cooked spreads or diffuses all through out the room for quite sometime.
Occasionally, the aroma of the food can penetrate through the tiny openings of the
door or windows and diffuses outside the room. Even if gaseous molecules travel at
tremendous speeds, they tend to collide with other gaseous molecules and travel in
many different directions before reaching the desired point. At room temperature, a
gaseous molecule will experience billions of collisions per second.
Properties and behaviour of Gases
Gases are compressible and expandable. They have low densities, have no
definite shape and volume. They completely fit in any container in which they are
confined. Gases are capable of diffusion and effusion and exert pressure on walls of
their containers .
A barometer is an instrument used to measure atmospheric pressure, while a
thermometer is used to measure temperature. These two instruments and many others
are applications of the principles of gas laws.
Diffusion and Effusion
Generally, you know very well that when a sample of gas is introduced to one
part of a closed container, its molecules very quickly disperse throughout the
container. This process by which molecules disperse in space in response to
differences in concentration is called diffusion . The gaseous atoms or molecules are,
of course, unaware of any concentration , they simply move randomly—regions of
higher concentration have more particles than regions of lower concentrations, and so
a net movement of species from high to low concentration areas takes place. In a closed
environment, diffusion will ultimately result in equal concentrations of gas
throughout, as depicted in Figure 1. The gaseous atoms and molecules continue to
move, but since their concentrations are the same in both bulbs, the rates of transfer
between the bulbs are equal so, no net transfer of molecules occurs.
Figure 1. (a) Two gases, H2 and O2, are initially separated. (b) When the stopcock is
opened, they mix together. The lighter gas, H2, passes through the opening faster than
O2 , so just after the stopcock is opened, more H2 molecules move to the O2 side than
O2 molecules move to the H2 side. (c) After a short time, both the slower-moving O2
molecules and the faster-moving H2 molecules have distributed themselves evenly on
both sides of the vessel. ( credit:https://opentextbc.ca/chemistry/chapter/9-4-effusion-and-
diffusion-of-gases/ ).
We are often interested in the rate of diffusion, the amount of gas passing through
some area per unit time:
rate of diffusion = amount of gas passing through an area
unit of time
The rate of diffusion depends on several factors:
a. the concentration gradient (the increase or decrease in concentration from
one point to another.
b. the amount of surface area available for diffusion
c. the distance the gas particles travel.
Take note also that the time required for diffusion to occur is inversely
proportional to the rate of diffusion, as shown in the rate of diffusion equation.
The process which involves the movement of gaseous species similar to
diffusion is known as effusion. Effusion is the escape of gas molecules through a
tiny hole such as a pinhole in a balloon into a vacuum.
Although diffusion and effusion rates both depend on the molar mass of the
gas involved, their rates are not equal; however, the ratios of their rates are the
same.
Figure 2. Diffusion and Effusion (credit: https://opentextbc.ca/chemistry/chapter/9-4-

effusion-and-diffusion-of-gases/)
Diffusion happens when gas molecules disperse throughout a container.

While effusion occurs when a gas passes through an opening that is smaller than the
mean free path of the particles. This refers. to the average distance traveled between
collisions. This means that only one particle passes through at a time.
Supposing a mixture of gases is placed in a container with porous walls, the

gases effuse through the small openings in the walls. The lighter gases pass through
the small openings more rapidly than the heavier ones.
Graham’s Law of Effusion
Molecules move at different speeds. Furthermore, according to the Kinetic

Molecular Theory, the average kinetic energy is directly proportional to the absolute
temperature. It means that as long as a certain gas are held at the same temperature,
their kinetic energies will be equal.
From the study of scientists about gases, they observed the movement of
gases from a higher pressure to a lower pressure through porous walls, which is what
you call effusion. Scientists derived the following mathematical relationship which
describes the average kinetic energy of a molecule.
1 mv2
KE =
2
In the equation, KE stands for kinetic energy, m for the mass of the molecule,
and v for the average speed or velocity of the molecules. This means that the average
kinetic energy of a molecule is equal to half of the mass of the molecule and the square
of its average speed.
Therefore for any two gases, A and B, held under the same conditions of
temperature, the average kinetic energies will be given by the equation
KEa = KEb Since
then the relationship can also be written as follows :
Now, it means that the speed of molecules of gases are inversely

proportional to the square root of their masses. This generalization is called
Graham’s Law of Effusion , named after Scottish chemist Thomas Graham(1805-
1869. He discovered this phenomenon in 1846. Graham’s law can be restated as
follows: The rate of effusion of a gas is inversely proportional to the square root of its
molar mass .
So, again this means that if two gases A and B are at the same temperature
and pressure, the ratio of their effusion rates is inversely proportional to the ratio of
the square roots of the masses of their particles.
Let us now solve problems involving Graham Law.
Sample problem 1:
If equal amounts of helium and argon are placed in a porous container and
allowed to escape, which gas will escape faster and how much faster?
Solution:
Step 1: Set rates and get atomic weights:

rate 1 = He
rate 2 = Ar
The molecular mass of He = 4.00
The molecular mass of Ar = 39.95
Step 2: Graham's Law is:
Step 3: Substituting, we have
rate He/rate Ar = √ MM Ar / √MM He = √ 39.95 / √4.00

rate He = 3.16
Helium escapes faster than Ar. It does at 3.16 times the rate of the argon.
Sample problem 2
Compare the rate of diffusion of carbon dioxide (CO 2) & ozone (O3) at the same
temperature.
Solution:
1) Determine the mass first:
The molecular mass of CO2 = 44.009
The molecular mass of O3 = 47.997
2) Graham's Law:
rate CO2/ rate O3 = √ MM CO2 / √MM O3= √ 47.997 / √44.009

rate CO2 = 1.044
CO2 effuses 1.044 times as fast as O3

ACTIVITIES
Activity 1. What property of gases is demonstrated in each situation:
______________1. Eleana and her friend were playing. She blew air into an empty
rubber balloon and ties the open end. Afterwards, the balloon formed a round shape.
______________2. Her friend squeezed the balloon gently. She observed that the balloon
becomes smaller when squeezed.
______________3. Eleana placed the balloon in a bowl of hot water. Now, the size of
the balloon became bigger.
_______________4. She then placed it in a bowl of cold water. The size became smaller.
_______________5. She untied the balloon. The gas escaped the balloon.
Activity 2. Each item consists of two statements. Before each item, write:
C - if none of the statements are false
H- if none of the statements are true
E- if only the first statement is true
M- if only the second statement is true
_____ 1. The diameter of gaseous particles is much smaller than the space between
them. For this reason, gases can be compressed.
_____ 2. A rising bubble from the bottom of the liquid decreases in size. It can be
explained by Boyle’s law.
______3. Gas expands when heated. Average kinetic energy of gas is directly
proportional to its absolute temperature.
_____ 4. Hot gas is used for a balloon that has to be flown in the air. Hot air is more
dense than cold air outside the balloon.
_____ 5. Effusion is the ability of the gas to scatter in a wide space. Thomas Graham
made a study on the relationship of the rate of effusion and the molar mass.
Activity 3. Solve the following:
1. Calculate the ratio of the rate o effusion of methane gas, CH 4 (g) to He (g) at
constant temperature and pressure. The molar masses or CH4 (g) and He (g)
are 16.0 g/mol and 4.0g/mol, respectively.
2. Calculate the ratio of the rate of effusion of hydrogen to the rate of effusion of
oxygen.
3. At a particular pressure and temperature, nitrogen gas effuses at the rate of
79 mL/s. Using the same apparatus at the same temperature and pressure,
at what rate will sulfur dioxide effuse?
4. Which of the following gases diffuse more slowly than oxygen?
F2, Ne, N2O, C2H2, NO, Cl2, H2S
WRAP-UP
Direction: Complete the concept map by filling up the boxes with the appropriate
concepts using the linking words/phrases as guide on how these concepts are related
to each other.
Concepts: effusion kinetic energy Graham’s Law

Diffusion molecular mass gas particles
VALUING
The property of gases to diffuse allows the gaseous pollutants to spread through out
the space available and reach places where people live. These pollutants affect the
animals, agricultural crops and the also cause health hazards. On the otherhand,
COVID-19 is transmitted from person to person via droplets, contact, and fomites. It
is transmitted when one individual talks, sneezes, or coughs producing ‘droplets’ of
saliva containing the COVID-19 virus. Many experts believe that airborne virus plays
a significant role in community transmission. Why is it important to maintain proper
distancing of more than 1 meter to another person?
POSTTEST
Choose the letter of the best answer:
1. It is the escape of gas molecules through a tiny hole .

A. effusion B. diffusion C. evaporation D. condensation
2. The smell of brewed coffee in the morning is due to

A. Condensation C. Effusion
B. Diffusion D. Expansibility
3. Which of the following is the representation of mathematical equation

for Graham’s law?
A. P1 V1= P2 V2 C.
B. PV =nRT D.
4.Which of the following gases below is expected to diffuse at the fastest rate?
A. H2 B. N2 C. F2 D. CO2
5. Hydrogen gas effuses through a porous container 8.97-times faster than an

unknown gas. Estimate the molar mass of the unknown gas.
A. 163 g/mole C. 16.3 g/mole
B. 1.63 g/ mole D. 1630 g/ mole
References
n.d. http://www.chemteam.info/GasLaw/Gas-graham Prob1-10html. Accessed August 2020.
n.d. https//opentextc.ca/chemistry/chapter/9-4-eusion-and-difusion o gas. Accessed August 2020.
n.d. https://courses.Lumenlearning.com/suny-mcc-chemistryfor majors-1/chapter/efusion-and-
diffusion-of-gas/. Accessed August 2020.
Ilao, Luciana V., Betty M. Lontoc, Edwehna Elinore S. Paderna-Gayon, and Josefina G. Belen. 2016.
General Chemistry 1. Manila: Rex Book Store.
Maderal, Chona, Ma. Cristina C. Domingo, and Roberto V. Anir. 2005. CHEMISTRY Skills Builder and
Exercises. Quezon City: Great Minds Book Sales, Inc.
Nudo, Leogarda P., Zaidy B. Mindo, Nenita T. Villamarin, and Jocelyn A. Prado. 2009. SKILL-
BOOSTER.COM SkillBook in Chemistry. Quezon City: Bookman, Inc.
General
Chemistry 1 11
Quarter 2
Functional Groups of Organic Compounds
EXPECTATIONS
This module is about different functional groups of organic compounds. After

going through this module, you are expected to:
• describe the different functional groups of organic compounds;

• draw formula and structure of each functional group;
• cite some examples of each functional group and its uses.
PRETEST
Let’s try to answer this! Choose the letter of your choice and write your answer in a
separate paper.
1. All compounds consist of a particular atom in their molecules or group of

atoms which is called as
A. atom group C. function group
B. prominent group D. functional group
2. What is the general formula of amines?

A. R-CH2 C. R-NH2
B. R2CH D. R-COOH
3. Which of these compounds is a ketone?
A. C
D
B.
4. Methanoic acid is an example of what functional group?

A. aldehydes C. ketone
B. carboxylic acids D. ethers
5. Aldehyde is one of the functional groups which plays an important role in

producing different materials for human use or consumption. What common
aldehyde is used in the laboratory to preserve animal specimens?
A. acetone C. carbonyl
B. alcohol D. formaldehyde
RECAP
About 200 years ago, the study of carbon compounds produced by living
things like animals and plants is under the organic chemistry. Organic compounds
needed a ‘life force’ to be produced. Thus, compounds that were from nonliving things
like rocks were classified as inorganic. However, this was changed with the
experiment of Friedrich Wohler in 1928, when he synthesized urea (an organic
compound) from ammonium cyanate (inorganic compound). This was the turning
point in organic chemistry. It dispelled the belief that organic compounds could only
be formed by nature.
Through this, can you identify these compounds as either organic or
inorganic?
1. Gasoline (C8H18)
2. Limestone (CaCO3)
3. sodium hydroxide (NaOH)
4. baking soda(NaHCO₃)
5. Paraffin (C31H64)
It is good to know that you still remember the previous lesson.
LESSON
The structure features that make it possible to classify compounds by

reactivity are called functional group. They, therefore, determine the properties and
chemistry of many organic compounds. A functional group is a part of a larger
molecule and is composed of an atom or group of atoms that have characteristic
chemical behavior of an organic compound. Thus, organic compounds can be
classified according to their functional groups.
In an organic compounds a functional group shows a property that is distinct

to the other. For example, you can see in Table 1 the feature of the different four-
carbon atoms. They all contain four carbons, but they are all different because of the
functional groups they have.
Table 1.
Name Formula Melting point Boiling point
Butane C4 H10 -138.4 -0.5

1-butanol C4OH10 -89.5 117.2
Butanoic acid C4O2H8 -4.5 163.5
What did you observe? When you examine at these compounds, you can
observe that by adding an -OH group to butane, you drastically increase its boiling
point. And raises even more by adding a COOH group to form butanoic acid. These
are just four of the members of the so many organic compounds.
We are going to talk about the common functional groups for organic
compounds such as: alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, esters, carboxylic acid, amines
and amide. Functional group can be shown through the short hand way of writing
which is called the “general formula”. This is used by the scientists. They write an R,
which stands for the rest of the compound, a dash and the functional group. Table
2 shows the common functional groups of organic compounds.
Table 2. Common Functional Group
Class General Formula Functional Group

Alcohol ROH —O—H Hydroxyl group
Aldehyde RCHO Carbonyl group
Ketone RCOR' Carbonyl group

(R’=hydrocarbon)
Carboxylic Acid RCOOH Carboxyl group
Ester RCOOR' Ester group

(R’=hydrocarbon)
Amide RCONR'R" Amide group

(R’, R” = H or
hydrocarbon)
Amine RNR'R" Amino group

(R’, R” = H or
hydrocarbon)
Let us discuss them further.

Alcohol.
Alcohol, an organic compound that contains one or more hydroxyl
groups. It is composed of -OH, one oxygen and one hydrogen.
Some common alcohols:
Methanol Ethanol Propanol 2-propanol

(ethyl alcohol) (isopropyl alcohol)
Alcohols are highly flammable. The carbon content together with the
solubility in hydrocarbon solvent increases but the solubility in water decreases.
Thus the densities and boiling points also increases. Alcohols also react under proper
conditions such as: by replacement of the atom of the –OH group; by dehydration to
give unsaturated derivatives; and by oxidation.
Uses
Methanol is the simplest alcohol. It is highly toxic and causes blindness.
Ethanol or Ethyl alcohol is a common solvent and starting material for various
commercial uses. It is effective in killing microorganisms like bacteria, fungi and
viruses and a common ingredient in many hand sanitizers. Ethanol is recommended
by The U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) in situations where
soap and water are not available. Especially today, practicing hand hygiene is an
important part of helping to stop the spread of COVID-19. An isomer, isopropyl
alcohol, is commonly called rubbing alcohol.
Aldehydes and Ketones
Aldehydes ( ) , the carbonyl group (C=O) is linked to one C atom and one
H atom, whereas in ketones , it is linked to two C atoms. Carbonyl compounds

are everywhere in nature. Aldehydes and ketones have similar way of preparation
and chemical properties because they belong to the same functional group. They are
polar in nature. Their boiling point is lower than alcohol because of lack of hydrogen,
thus they cannot participate in hydrogen bonding like alcohols.
Common Aldehyde and Ketone
Formaldehyde Acetone
Uses
Aqueous formaldehyde is used in preserving animal specimens in the
laboratory. Acetone is used as solvent for organic compounds and as nail polish
remover.
Carboxylic Acid
Carboxylic acid is an organic compound which can donate the proton of the
hydroxyl group to a number of reactions. Its functional group is the carboxyl group,
-COOH. Its acidity is the primary chemical characteristic of carboxylic acid. It is polar
in nature because they contain a carbonyl group and they can form hydrogen bond
because they contain hydrogen bound to a very electronegative atom.
Some common carboxylic acids
Methanoic acid Acetic acid Butyric acid
Uses
One of the examples is methanoic acid. It is used in disinfecting hides and the
brewing industries because of its germicidal property. Another is ethanoic acid or
known as acetic acid, which is an acid present in vinegar. It is one of the solvent for
many organic and even some inorganic compound. Butyric acid or butanoic acid
is used in the preparation of various butyrate esters. It is used in coatings and wide
variety of tools and is more resistant to degradation than cellulose acetate.
Esters
Esters have the general formula R' COOR. The molecules are polar in nature
but have no hydrogen atom attached directly to an oxygen atom. The boiling point of
esters are similar to aldehyde and ketones.
Some common esters
3-methylbutyl acetate octyl acetate
Uses
Esters are used in the manufacture of perfumes and as flavoring agents in the
confectionary and soft drinks industries. It is also responsible for the smell of many
fruits. Example is the odor of banana, this contain 3-methylbutyl acetate. Another is
octyl acetate which is present in oranges and methyl butyrate responsible for the
smell of the apples.
Amides
Amides are functional groups in which a carbonyl carbon atom is linked by a
single bond to a nitrogen atom and either a hydrogen or a carbon atom. It is also
known as an organic amide or a carboxamide, with the general formula RCNR′R″,
where R, R′, and R″ represent organic groups or hydrogen atoms.
Some common amides:
Acetamide Dimethylformamide Urea
Uses
Acetamide or ethanamide is a simplest amide which is derived from acetic
acid. It is use as a plasticizer and as an industrial solvent. Dimethylformamide or
commonly called as DMF is a clear liquid which is miscible in water. It is use also as
a solvent for chemical reactions. Urea or carbamide is a crystalline compound that is
formed as the end product of the metabolism of protein and excreted in the urine of
mammals. It is commonly use as fertilizers and in animal feed.
Amines
Amines are organic bases having an amino (-NH2) functional group. They can
be aliphatic or aromatic. The amine vapors are flammable. They are colorless in the
pure state and have a fishy odor. Some common amines are:
Ethanol amine Dimethylamine Aniline
Uses
The alkyl amines are used in the production of synthetic medicinal, and also
a catalysts and condensing agents in organic synthesis. One of the amines is the
ethanol amine which is an effective emulsifying agents and used in dry cleaning.
Another is dimethyamine which is used in compounding of rubber accelerators.
Aniline an aromatic amine and a solvent, is used in dyes, indicators, photographic
developers and medicinal.
ACTIVITIES
ACTIVITY 1: “Making Money with Functional Groups”

Direction: You will make companies whose names were taken from the functional
groups; namely,
1. The Alkyl Hall Co. (Alcohols)

2. Al de Hyde Inc. (Aldehydes and Ketones)
3. The Grandma Ester Co. (Esters)
4. The Phatty Acids Co. (Carboxylic Acids)
5. Finding Amines Co. (Amines)
The goal is to convince an investor to invest in the company so that you can
build a factory to make a particular compound. For example, the Phatty Acids could
make acetic acid, CH3COOH, and sell it for use in vinegar to make the investor
money. You may come up with 3 different compounds that you can make and sell.
You can use your textbooks or smart phones as resources. Here is the table to be
filled out.
Functional Group Activity Sheet:
The Alkyl Al de Hyde The The Phatty Finding

Hall Co. Inc. Grandma Acids Co. Amines Co.
Ester Co.
Functional
Group
Name
Functional
Group
Structure
Compound
Name
Properties
3 examples
(name and
structural
formula
and uses
Note: A rubric will be used to evaluate your activity.
Let us use your creativity to do the activity 2 which may deepen more your
understanding. Are you ready?
ACTIVITY 2: “Functional Group Poster”
1. Choose an organic compound and present it as a poster. You must indicate the
following:
a. Chemical name and chemical formula of the organic compound
b. Structure of the organic compound (identify the functional group/s if any)
c. Properties of the organic compound (physical and chemical)
d. Use of the organic compound in everyday life e. Effects to humans and other
living things
f. Precautions in using the compound (if any)
➢ A rubric will be used to evaluate your activity.
ACTIVITY 3: “Where Do I belong”

Below are common household items that are used in our everyday lives. Identify
what kind or organic compounds are them.
Common Household Items Kind of Organic Compound
1. flavoring extracts
2. fertilizer
3. nail polish remover
4. wine
5. disinfectant
WRAP-UP
Let us see if you remember the different functional groups. Just fill in the diagram
with the name of the organic compound or with the functional group.
Organic compounds
have different
1.
alcohol amine
2. 4.
3. Carboxy Ester
lic acid
5.
7.
RCHO
RCOR' RCOOH RCONR'R"
6.
8.
anilin
.. e
forma aceton 9. Octyl 10.
ldehy e
acetate
de
VALUING
Functional groups play an important role in chemistry because they are the
part of a molecule that gives chemical behavior to an organic compound. They,
therefore, determine the properties and chemistry of many organic compounds.
Thus, each organic compound has its unique characteristic which make them useful
and effective. How about you? What characteristics you may have which is unique
to others and can help you as an individual?
POSTTEST
sheet of paper.
1.Which of the following is an alcohol functional group?

A. –OH C. -COOH
B. –NH D. -SH
2. What is the general formula of carboxylic acid?
A. R-CH2 C. R2CH
C. R-NH2 D. R-COOH
3. What is the best classification of this compound
A. aldehyde C. ketone
B. carboxylic acid D. ester
4. What common ketone which is mainly used as solvent for organic compounds
and as nail polish remover?
A. acetone C. omegatone
B. alcapone D. octyl acetate
5. One important use of the carboxyl group from a certain group of ants is formic
acid. Formic acid is simply a carboxyl group attached to a hydrogen. The ants inject
this acid into enemies as a defense. Why does this work?
A. The carboxyl group forms bonds with their proteins

B. The acid upsets the pH balance, and destroys cells
C. The acid simply tastes bad to predators
D. All the choices are correct.
KEY TO CORRECTION
Pre-Test (Assessment) Activity 2

1. D 2. C 3. A 4. C 5. D
It depends on the followed rubrics
Recap (What I Know)
1. Organic 2.inorganic
3.inorganic 4. Inorganic
5. organic
Activities (What's More)

Activity 1:
The Al de The The Finding
Alkyl Hyde Grandm Phatty Amines Co.
Hall Co. Inc. a Ester Acids
Functio Hydroxy Carbon

Co.
Ester
Co.
Carboxy Amino
Activity 3
nal l y l group 1. Ester 2. Amide 3. Ketone
Group
Name 4.alcohol 5. Carboxylic acid
Functio R-O-H
nal Wrap-Up
Group
Structu
1. Functional group 2. Aldehyde
re
Alcohol aldehyd ester Carboxy amine
3.ketone 4. Amide 5. R-O-H
Compo e lic acid 6. RCOOR' 7. RNR'R" 8.Examples:
und
Name ethanol, isopropyl alcohol 9. Acetic
Flamma Polar,bp Polar, polar flsmmable
ble, is lower bp is acid, methanoic acid 10.
Properti
than
alcohol
the
same
Acetanamide, urea
es with
carbony
l group Post-Test (What I Have Learned)
3 Methan formald 3- Methan Ethanol
example ol,ethan ehyde methylb oic acid amine 1. D 2. D 3. D 4. A 5. B
s ol, utyl
(name isoprop acetate Acetic Dimethyla
and yl acid mine
structur alcohol octyl
al acetate Butyric Aniline
formula acid
and
uses
REFERENCES
Chang, Raymond.Chemistry.10th Edition.New York, NY: Mc Graw-Hill Companies,
Inc..2010.
Ilao, Luciana V. et.al.2016.General Chemistry 1.1 st Edition.Sampaloc Manila.Rex
Bookstore Inc.2016.
McMurry, John.Fundamentals of Organic Chemistry.4 th Edition
Singapore.Brooks/Cole Publishing Company.1998
Augustyn, Adam. Amide Functional Group. Encyclopaedia Britannica.2020.
https://www.britannica.com/science/amide
Drury, Kristen. An Activity for Introducing Organic Functional Groups.07/02/2019.
https://www.chemedx.org/blog/activity-introducing-organic-functional-group
Libre Text Libraries.Esters-Structure and Names. Jun 18,2020.
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Introductory_Chemistry/Book%3A_The_Basics_of_
GOB_Chemistry_(Ball_et_al.)/15%3A_Organic_Acids_and_Bases_and_Some_of_Their_Deriv
atives/15.05_Esters%3A_Structures_and_Names
Libre Text Libraries .Aldehydes and Ketones: Structure and Names.Jun 25,
2020.https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Introductory_Chemistry/Book%3A_The_Basics_of_GOB_C
hemistry_(Ball_et_al.)/14%3A_Organic_Compounds_of_Oxygen/14.09_Aldehydes_and_Ketones
March, Jerry. Carboxylic acid chemical compound. Aug 21, 2018.
https://www.britannica.com/science/carboxylic- acid/Properties-of-carboxylic-acids.
Smith, Peter, S.A.Amine chemical compound. Nov 09, 2017.
https://www.britannica.com/science/amine
Thenard,Louis-Jacques. Ester chemical compound. May 21, 2020.
https://www.britannica.com/science/ester-chemical-compound
White Ryan.Functional Group Lesson Plan.09/24/2012.
https://sites.google.com/site/chemistryfortheworld/services/lesson-plans/functional-group- esson-plan
General
Chemistry 1
11
Quarter 2
Module 13
Some Simple Reactions of Organic
Compounds
EXPECTATIONS
This module is about some simple reactions of organic compounds. After going
through this module, you are expected to:
• describe some simple reactions of organic compounds: combustion of
organic fuels, addition, condensation, and saponification of fats;
• show a chemical reaction of each simple organic reaction;
• appreciate common organic reactions which benefits us.
PRETEST
separate paper.
1. What kind of gas is needed in a combustion reaction?
A. Butane gas C. Hydrogen gas
B. Oxygen gas D. Carbon dioxide gas
2. What is given off, if hydrogen and alkene are passed over finely divided nickel?
A. Alcohol C. Alkanes
B. Aldehydes D. Ketones
3. Complex sugar (disaccharide or polysaccharide) is one of the products in a

condensation reaction. What is the other product formed?
A. Amino acids C. maltose
B. Lipids D. Water
4. What type of compounds are commonly used as reactants during addition

reactions?
A. Alkanes C. Unsaturated compounds
B. Saturated compounds D. single-bonded hydrocarbons
5. Lye is used in soap-making. Lye is a concentrated solution of which ionic

compound?
A. K2CO3 B. CuSO4 C. NaOH D. NaCl
RECAP
In the previous lesson, you’ve learned about the different functional groups
and their general formula and structure. Through this, you may realize that most
of the things that we are using undergo chemical reactions.
Before we go further with the next lesson, classify first the functional group
of these organic compounds. What you’re going to do is to match column A, the
different functional groups with column B, classes of organic compounds.
A B
1. Carboxyl group A. alcohol
2. Carbonyl group B. ketone
3. Amino group C. ester
4. Hydroxyl group D. carboxylic acid
5. Amide group E. aldehyde
6. Ester group F. amide
G. amine
Great job! You are now ready to immerse yourself to another set of learning which
is also related with our previous lesson. Let’s start!
LESSON
Chemical reaction happens all around us. Do you think there are simple
organic reactions? Organic compounds usually undergo chemical reaction which is
known as organic reaction. Let us take a look at the different simple organic
reactions. They are as follows:
• Combustion of organic fuels
• Addition reaction
• Condensation reaction
• Saponification of fats
Combustion of Organic Fuel
Combustion is an exothermic chemical reaction where a substance reacts rapidly

with oxygen gas and gives off energy in the form of light and heat. Fuel, a
hydrocarbon easily reacts with oxygen to release useful energy. It gives a huge
amount of heat and light in a small part.
The two types of Combustion of fuel are: complete combustion and incomplete
combustion
When does complete combustion occur?
Complete combustion occurs when a fuel reacts rapidly with oxygen (O2) and
produces carbon dioxide (CO2). Fuels such as natural gas and petrol is made up of
hydrocarbons. These are compounds of hydrogen and carbon only. When they burn
completely:
• the carbon oxidizes to carbon dioxide

• the hydrogen oxidizes to water
Thus, complete combustion shows like this:
hydrocarbon + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water
Example: Equation for the Complete Combustion of Propane (C 3H8)
propane + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water
C3H8 + 5O2 → 3CO2 + 4H2O
Incomplete combustion of fuel occurs when there isn’t enough oxygen to allow the
fuel to react completely with the oxygen. Thus, it still produced water, but instead of
carbon dioxide it is replaced by carbon monoxide and carbon (soot) as the product.
Incomplete combustion:
hydrocarbon + oxygen → carbon monoxide + carbon + water
In this equation it shows that the product is carbon(soot):
propane + oxygen → carbon + water
C3H8 + 2O2 → 3C + 4H2O
The carbon is released as soot. Carbon monoxide is a poisonous gas that can
affect the quality of air. Thus, when it is absorbed by our body through the lungs
and combines with the hemoglobin in the red blood cells, it lowers the capability of
the blood to carry oxygen. Which in turn may affect the condition of the whole being
of the person.
Addition Reaction
Addition reaction is a chemical reaction in which an atom or group of atom is
added to a molecule. It usually occurs with unsaturated compounds (double or triple
bonds) to form saturated compounds (single bond). Thus, this is a process by which
alkenes and alkynes are involved. It is sometimes called saturation reactions because
the reaction causes the carbon atoms to become saturated with the maximum
number of attached groups.
General Formula:
Alkene Addition
Example: Hydrogenation of Alkene
Ethene Ethane
The above illustration shows the example of addition reaction specifically

hydrogenation reaction. The two hydrogen atoms are added across the double bond
of alkene, resulting in saturated alkane
One of the common application of hydrogenation is in food industry especially

in the production of spreads and shortenings from liquid oils. Example is the
production of margarine wherein there is a semi-liquid consistency after the reaction
which results in chemical stability of the product. Another is the liquification of solid
coal through the addition of hydrogen which is usually use as fuel.
Condensation Reaction
Condensation Reaction is also known as dehydration reaction. It is an organic
chemical reaction in which two smaller molecules are combine together to produce a
bigger molecule. In the reaction, a small molecule is eliminated often water. In this
case the removal of water is known as dehydration reaction. Other small molecules
are hydrogen chloride, methanol, and acetic acid. Many organic compounds that
combine with each other are aldehydes, ketones, esters, alkynes (acetylenes), and
amines to produce a larger molecule. Several of them are very important intermediate
compounds in organic syntheses.
Example: Acetic acid (CH3COOH) forms acetic anhydride ((CH3CO)2O) and water by
the condensation reaction
2 CH3COOH → (CH3CO)2O + H2O

Acetic acid acetic anhydride
The condensation of two amino acids to form a peptide.
The above illustration shows the amino acids which have functional group at
both ends, amine functional group on one end and a carboxylic acid on the other
end. Through the condensation reaction, a covalent bond is produced between the
amine nitrogen of one amino acid and the carboxyl carbon of the second amino acid.
Thus, the second part is the elimination of water molecule.
Saponification of Fats
Saponification literally known as “soap making”. It is a process by which

triglycerides are reacted with sodium or potassium hydroxide (lye) to produce glycerol
and a fatty acid salt called "soap". Usually animal fats or vegetable oils are the
triglycerides used. Soft soap is formed when sodium hydroxide is used, otherwise
hard soap is formed when potassium is used.
Below is an example of soap chemical reaction in which sodium stearate is
formed, from the hydrolysis of ethyl stearate.
For daily cleaning sodium hydroxide soap and potassium hydroxide soaps are
used. There are also other soap using metal soaps such as lithium soap which is
applicable for lubricating greases. In addition, saponification is also applied in fire
extinguisher in which the combustible oils and fats are converted into non-
combustible soap. The chemical reaction further inhibits the fire because it absorbs
heat from its surrounding and decreases the flames temperature.
ACTIVITIES
ACTIVITY 1: “Fill me”

Direction. Fill in the table below.
Organic Reaction Description Example

Addition
1. CH2=CH2 + Cl2 → ? 2.
Saponification 3 Fat + base → ? 4.

5. 6. C3H8 + 5 O2 → 3CO2 + 4H2O
7. organic chemical 8.
reaction in which two
smaller molecules
are combine together
to produce a bigger
molecule
Since you did it correctly. Let us have other activity 2 which may deepen more your
understanding. Are you ready?
ACTIVITY 2: “What’s my Product”
Direction. Give the product/s and identify the type of organic reaction which is suited
to the chemical equation.
1.
____ _________
+ O=O
C4H10 + O2 ________?________
2.
+ H-H ______?_________
C3H6 + H2 ?____________
In the illustrations below, identify the product/s and the type of organic
reaction being describe.
3.
4.
ACTIVITY 3: “Am I Beneficial?”

Study the picture and identify the type of organic reaction which they undergo to
make them useful.
1. 2.
https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%2Fx-engineer https://www.google.com/search?q=fire+extinguisher+bubble&tbm=
.org%2Fautomotive-engineering%2Finternal-combustion-engines%
3. 4.
https://www.google.com/search?q=soap+&tbm=isch&ved https://www.google.com/search?q=margarine+&tbm=isch&ved
5.
https://www.google.com/search?q=car+moving&tbm
You did great in your activity worksheet.
WRAP–UP
Let’s sum up what you’ve learned by simply identifying the simple reactions of
organic compounds.
______________1. Process by which double bond breaks because something is added.
______________2. Process by which triglycerides are reacted with sodium or potassium

hydroxide (lye) to produce glycerol and a fatty acid salt called "soap".
______________3. An exothermic chemical reaction where a substance reacts rapidly

with oxygen gas and gives off energy in the form of light and heat.
______________4. This reaction occurs when a fuel reacts rapidly with oxygen (O2)
and produces carbon dioxide (CO2).
______________5. This is known as dehydration reaction.
VALUING
Organic reactions have a huge part in our daily life. The food, clothes, paper,
ink, rubber, soap, perfumes, medicines etc. are indispensable to us for proper living.
All those things undergo chemical reactions for them to be useful. As an individual
can you cite at least three instances where organic reactions are beneficial to you?
POSTTEST
Direction: Analyze the questions carefully and answer it correctly. Write your
answer on a separate sheet of paper.
1. When does complete combustion occur?

A. Insufficient quantity of butane gas is supplied.
B. Sufficient quantity of oxygen gas is supplied.
C. Sufficient quantity of butane gas is supplied.
D. Insufficient quantity of oxygen is supplied.
2. What are broken during an addition reaction?

A. Atoms C. Multiple bonds
B. Matter D. Polyatomic ions
3. Condensation reaction always results in the formation of complex sugar

(disaccharide or polysaccharide). Which of the following is the other product
of condensation reaction?
A. amino acids C. maltose
B. lipids D. water
4. What is the product of the given chemical reaction?
5. Which of the following processes can saponification be used for?

A. To make soap
B. In blow glass artistry
C. The formation of alloys
D. For the production of plastics
KEY TO CORRECTION
5. B 4. butane 3. 2. C 1. B
5.condensation reaction
4. Complete combustion 3. combustion reaction
2. Saponification 1.addition reaction
Wrap up
combustion 5.
addition 4.
saponification 3.
saponification 2.
combustion 1.
Activity 3
water 4.
Carboxylate +alcohol/saponification 3.
C3H8(propane)/Addition 2.
CO2 + H2O/combustion 1.
Activity 2
R E F E R E N CE S
Inc..2010.
Ilao, Luciana V. et.al.2016.General Chemistry 1.1st Edition.Sampaloc Manila.Rex
Bookstore Inc.2016.
McMurry, John.Fundamentals of Organic Chemistry.4th Edition
Brinker Jeffrey C, George W. Scherer.1990 Condensation Reaction
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/chemical-engineering/condensation-reaction
Bruckner, Reinhard .2002. Advanced Organic Chemistry (First ed.). San Diego,
California: Harcourt Academic Press. pp. 414–427. ISBN 0-12-138110-2.
"Condensation Reaction". IUPAC Copendium of Chemical Terminology (Gold Book). IUPAC.
ElsevierB.V.2020.Saponification.https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/chemistry/
saponification
Helmenstine, Anne Marie Ph.D.August 06, 2018 Condensation Reaction Definition
in Chemistry. https://www.thoughtco.com/definition-of-condensation-reaction-604947
Lew, Jennifer .Catalytic Hydrogenation of Alkenes.June 6, 2019
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Organic_Chemistry/Supplemental_Modules_(Organic_Chemistry)/Alkenes/Reactivity
_of_Alkenes/Catalytic_Hydrogenation
LibreText.Saponification of Fats and Oils; Soaps and Detergents. May 31, 2020
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Organic_Chemistry/Map%3A_Organic_Chemistry_(Wade)/26%3A_Lipids/26.02%3A_
_of_Fats_and_Oils%3B_Soaps_and_Detergent
Silvia A. Centeno; Dorothy Mahon.Summer 2009. Macro Leona, ed. "The Chemistry
of Aging in Oil Paintings: Metal Soaps and Visual Changes." The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin. Metropolitan Museum of
Art. 67 (1): 12–19.
Voet, Donald; Voet, Judith; Pratt, Chriss.2008. Fundamentals of Biochemistry. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. p. 88. ISBN 978-0470-
12930-2.
General
Chemistry
11
1 11 2
Quarter
Module 14
The Formation, Structure and
Properties of Polymers of
Carbohydrates
EXPECTATIONS
This module is about the formation, structure and properties of polymers of
carbohydrates. After going through this module, you are expected to:
• describe the formation, structure and properties of polymers of

carbohydrates and relate them to their function;
• demonstrate an understanding about the polymers of carbohydrates;
• recognize the importance of carbohydrates in man’s life.
P R ET E S T
separate paper.
1. What elements make up a carbohydrate?

A. hydrogen, calcium, oxygen
B. hydrogen, carbon, oxygen
C. carbon, potassium, oxygen
D. carbon, magnesium, hydrogen
2. Starch and cellulose are complex carbohydrates found in ____.
A. air C. plants
B. animal D. soil
3. This macromolecule is the main source of energy and serves as structural
purposes in plants.
A. carbohydrates C. nucleic acid
B. lipids D. protein
4. What happens to a person's blood glucose level after eating?
A. It rises C. It is not affected
B. It falls D. It rises or falls depending on the gender
5. Research has indicated that diets high in fiber may reduce the risk of ____.
A. Colon cancer C. heart and artery disease
B. Hemorrhoids D. all of the above
RECAP
Based on the previous lesson, most of the things that we use as we start our
day like toothpaste, soap, shampoo, condiments in food preparation, fertilizer in
farming, fuel that is used in cars and industries, medicines, and others, undergo
chemical reactions. Specifically, we call these as simple organic reactions.
As you go further with the next lesson can you answer first the exercises
below. Identify what type of organic reaction is being shown in these chemical
equations.
1. CH4 + 2O2 → CO2 + 2H2O

2. 2CH3COOH → (CH3CO)2O + H2O
3. C3H8 + 2O2 → 3C + 4H2O
4. C17H35C00C2H5 + NaOH C17H35COO-Na+
5. CH2=CH2 + Cl2 CH2-CH2
Cl Cl
Well done! Your retention is so good!
L E S S ON
Are carbohydrates a biomolecule? Yes! Carbohydrates is one of the four

biomolecules together with the lipids, proteins, and nucleic acid. Biomolecules or
organic substances are carbon-containing compounds found in living organisms and
perform important functions.
Carbohydrates refer loosely to the broad class of multiple hydroxyl

(polyhydroxylated) aldehydes and ketones commonly called sugars (saccharides).
This compound contains carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They have the general
formula Cx (H2O)y. In addition, when carbohydrates are eaten and metabolized they
provide the major source of energy required by living organisms. Thus, it functions
as the energy source of the body.
How are carbohydrates formed?
Carbohydrates are made by green plants during photosynthesis, a complex

process in which sunlight provides the energy to convert CO 2 into glucose. It acts as
intermediaries by which solar energy is stored and used to support life.
6 CO2 + 6 H2O + energy C6H12O6 + 6 O2 cellulose, starch

glucose
Classification of Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are generally classified according to the number of sugar units in a

molecule namely:
• Monosaccharide- one sugar unit. It can’t be hydrolyzed into smaller molecules.

The common examples are glucose, fructose and galactose.
• Disaccharide-two simple sugar units per molecule linked together. The
common examples are sucrose (table sugar), maltose, and lactose.
• Polysaccharide-made up of many sugar units in a molecule. It can break into
their constituent monosaccharide units. The common examples are cellulose
glycogen, and starch
Let’s check the similarities and differences of each classification of carbohydrates

through their formula, structure and the sources of each.
Table 1. Monosaccharides: Their Formula, Structure and Sources
Monosaccharides Formula Structure Sources

Glucose
is the primary fuel from
which energy is produced C6H12O6 fruits
in living organisms.
-blood sugar
Fructose
-natural sugar found in
fruits C6H12O6 fruits, honey
Galactose usually found C6H12O6 dairy products

in nature combined with
other sugars
Monosaccharides
• simplest group of carbohydrates and often called simple sugars

• colorless, crystalline solid which are soluble in water and insoluble in a non-
polar solvent.
• contains a free aldehyde or ketone group.
• The general formula is Cn(H2O)n or CnH2nOn.
• Most monosaccharides have a sweet taste (fructose is sweetest; 73% sweeter
than sucrose)
• solids at room temperature
• extremely soluble in water
Table 2. Disaccharides: Their Formula, Structure and Sources
Disaccharides Formula Structure Sources

Sucrose C12H22O11
-common table sugar
-glucose and fructose sugar cane
linked together
sugar beet
Lactose C12H22O11
-sugar naturally
found in milk milk
-glucose and galactose
linked together
Maltose C12H22O11
-two glucose molecules
linked together germinating grain
Disaccharide
• a molecule formed by two monosaccharides

• their chemical formula is C12H22O11
• formed through condensation or dehydration reactions
• found in many foods and are often added as sweeteners
• Glycosidic bonds are formed to join the molecules
Table 3. Polysaccharides: Their Formula, Structure and Sources
Polysaccharides Formula Structure Sources

Cellulose straight woods
chain polymer
consisting of (C6H10O5)n
glucose units
Starch found in plants: corn,

plants and used wheat, potato
as source of (C6H10O5)n
energy
Glycogen stored most mammalian

energy found in and
animals (C6H10O5)n nonmammalian
cells-liver
Polysaccharide:
• are also called as “glycans”

• are not sweet
• not soluble in water
• contain more than 10 monosaccharide units and can be hundreds of sugar
units in length.
• through hydrolysis can yield more than 10 molecules of monosaccharides
• Polysaccharides differ from each other in the
o identity of their recurring monosaccharide units,
o in the length of their chains,
o in the types of bond linking units and
o in the degree of branching.
****Isomers. Compounds with the same molecular formula but different

structure as observe in the examples of each class of carbohydrates.
Chemical Property of Carbohydrates
1. Reducing Property. All monosaccharides and disaccharides containing free

aldehyde and ketone group are reducing.
2. Osazone crystal formation. Osazone are carbohydrate derivatives when
sugars are reacted with an excess of phenylhydrazine.
3. Reaction with acids. Disaccharides and other higher carbohydrates mix
easily with acids.
4. Reaction with alkali. Sugar easily reacts with strong base (NaOH) in which it
turns yellow to brown with a caramel odor.
5. Hydrolysis. Polysaccharides can be hydrolyzed by acids or enzymes
6. Fermentation. A process of decomposing carbohydrates with the aid of yeast,
bacteria and etc.
Functions of Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are everywhere. They occur in every living organism and

essential to life. They serve as important energy source for different metabolic
activities. They have the following major functions:
• They are used by living organisms as accessible energy to fuel cellular

reactions.
• They served as metabolic intermediates, energy stores and fuels
• Stored carbohydrates act as an energy source instead of proteins.
• They form structural and protective components of cell membrane
• They are intermediates in the biosynthesis of fats and proteins.
• They serve as energy source for the brain.
• They get linked with lipids and proteins to form surface antigens, receptor
molecules, vitamins, and antibiotics.
• They form part of the structural framework of RNA and DNA molecules
• They are an essential component of connective tissues in animals.
• They help in the modulation of the immune system.
ACTIVITIES
ACTIVITY 1: “Study my Structure”

Direction: Answer the questions below. Please refer your answer on Table 1.
1. What is the formula of glucose? fructose? galactose? What can you say about
their formulas?
2. What do you call compounds with the same formula but different structures?
3. What is the difference between the structure of glucose and the structure of
fructose?
4. How many carbon atoms do glucose, fructose, and galactose have?
5. What functional groups are present in glucose, fructose, and galactose?
What did you realize in this activity? I know your mind is enlightened already. Let’s
have another one.
ACTIVITY 2: “Cut down my Carbs”
People are aware nowadays about their body and health. Thus, we usually
avoid starchy foods (potatoes, rice, and bread) and sugary foods (cookies and soft
drinks), when we are told to “cut down on carbs,” But is that the whole story about
carbs?
Choose and drop the foods that contain carbs onto the plate.
http://www.tv411.org/science/tv411-whats-cooking/
carbohydrates-science-lesson/activity/1/1
ACTIVITY 3:
I. Different foods contain different amount of sugar and starch. Simple carbohydrates
give our body a quick burst of energy while complex carbohydrates pack a lot of
energy. Which food do you think contains more sugar (simple carbohydrates)? Which
food contains more starch (complex carbohydrates? Place each food to the right
category.
Onions corn white rice
High in Sugar High in Starch
Camote mango syrup
raisins Macaroni orange
sugar cane prunes
WRAP–UP
Let’s take a closer look at the chemistry of carbohydrates.
We can break down the word carbohydrate into carbo for carbon and hydrate for
water, which is a compound of hydrogen and oxygen. So carbohydrates are a
compound of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Fill in the blank that best describes
each statement.
1. __________are those carbohydrates that cannot hydrolyzed into simpler

carbohydrates.
2. Disaccharides are condensation products of two ______units.
3. In carbohydrates, ______ and _______ are functional groups.
4. A solution of reducing sugar when heated with phenyl hydrazine forms yellow
crystalline compounds called _____ .
5. The main function of carbohydrates is _____.
VALUING
Carbohydrates has a big role in human’s whole being. It provides body and
brain energy. Also, it plays an important role in the structure and function of our
cells, tissues and organs. So where do we get it? Of course we get most of our energy
from eating carbs, and the carbs we eat mostly come from plants. On the other hand,
too much intake of carbohydrates can have a negative effect. So as a student what
can you do to have a healthy body especially this time that we are experiencing
pandemic?
POSTTEST
sheet of paper.
1.What is/ are the major functions of carbohydrates?
A. structural framework C. both a nad b

B. storage D. none of these
2. Which of the following is a carbohydrate with 6 carbon atoms with a keto group
as a functional group?
A. dihydroxyacetone C. galactose
B. fructose D. glyceraldehyde
3. Which of the following is the best source of foods high in starch?
A. grains C. milk products

B. fruits D. meat and beans
4. Why is it that carbohydrates are considered as the body's preferred source of

energy?
A. They spare fats
B. They are inexpensive to buy
C. They are plentiful in the died
D. They can be used efficiently as fuel
5. Gina decided to follow a diet program to lose weight. She was avoiding nearly all
carbohydrate foods. What health condition is she most at risk of developing?
A. Diabetes mellitus C. Lactose intolerance
B. Ketosis D. Starvation
KEY T O C O R R E C T I O N
Activity 2
Pre-Test (Assessment)
1. C 2. C 3. A 4. A 5. D Based on their observation
Activity 3
Recap (What I Know)
1. Organic 2.inorganic I. fruits= papaya, orange juice,onion
3.inorganic 4. Inorganic Vegetables=spinach,
5. organic Protein=porkchop, eggs
Dairy=milk, yogurt
Grains=oatmeal, whole wheat bread
Activities (What's More) II.High in sugar=onions, mango syrup, raisins,
Activity 1: orange, sugar cane, prunes
1. Gucose, fructose and galactose High in starch=corn, white rice, camote,
have the same chemical macaroni
formula:C6H12O6 Wrap-Up
2. Isomers 1. Monosaccharides
2. monosaccharides/sugar
3. Glucose and fructose differe in
3. aldehyde and ketone
structural formula.the position 4. osazone
of the functional group 5. energy storage/fuel
4. 6 carbon atoms Post-Test (What I Have Learned)
5. Aldehyde, alcohol
1. C 2. B 3. A 4. D 5. D
R E F E R E N CE S
Inc..2010.
Bookstore Inc.2016.
Eugene A. Davidson. Carbohydrate.2019.https://www.britannica.com/science/carbohydrate
Jessie Szalay . What Are Carbohydrates? 15 July 2017https://www.livescience.com/51976-carbohydrates.html

William Reusch. Introduction to Carbohydrates. Jun 6, 2019.
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Biological_Chemistry/Supplemental_Modules_(Biological_Chemistry)/Carbohydrates
/Carbohydrates_Fundamentals/
Lehninger, A. L., Nelson, D. L., & Cox, M. M. (2000). Lehninger principles of biochemistry. New York: Worth Publishers.
Rodwell, V. W., Botham, K. M., Kennelly, P. J., Weil, P. A., & Bender, D. A. (2015). Harper’s illustrated biochemistry (30th ed.). New York,
N.Y.: McGraw-Hill Education LLC.
Robert J. LinhardtHélène G. Bazin. Properties of Carbohydrates. Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg New York 2001.
https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-642-56874-9_2
http://muskie.usm.maine.edu/cfl/HHW/Games/LearningAboutCarbsCombined.pdf
Sagar Aryal.Carbohydrates- definition, structure, types, examples, functions.August 5, 2018. https://microbenotes.com/carbohydrates-

structure-properties-classification-and-functions/
TV411Website © 2014 Education Development Center, Inc.. http://www.tv411.org/science/tv411-whats-cooking/carbohydrates-science-

lesson/activity/2/1
General
Chemistry 1 11
Quarter 2
The Formation, Structure and Properties of
Polymers of Lipids
EXPECTATIONS
lipids. After going through this module, you are expected to:
• describe the formation, structure and properties of polymers of lipids

and relate them to their function;
• demonstrate understanding on the polymers of lipids;
• recognize the significance of lipids and its function in the body.
PRETEST
Let’s try to answer this! Choose the letter of the best answer and write your answer
in a separate paper.
1. Which of the following molecules act as molecular chaperons for assisting the
folding of the proteins?
A. amides C. lipids
B. carbohydrates D. vitamins
2. Where do lipids found?
A. Bread C. meat
B. Chocolate D. oils/fats/waxes
3. Like soap, which of the following molecules is also amphophilic – having
both a hydrophilic and hydrophobic end?
A. Phospholipids C. water
B. Steroids d. waxes
4. Find the INCORRECT statement about the biological functions of lipids.
A. Storage form of metabolic fuel
B. Exhibit increased catalytic activity
C. The structural component of membranes
D. Have a protective function in bacteria, plant, and insects
5. Usually some oily foods get rancid or having unpleasant odor when stock it
for a long period of time. What do you think is the reason of rancidity of lipid
of lipid-rich foodstuff?
A. Reduction of fatty acids
B. Oxidation of fatty acids
C. Hydrogenation of unsaturated fatty acids
D. Dehydrogenation of saturated fatty acids
RECAP
In the previous lesson, you’ve learned that carbohydrates have a lot of

functions in the body. They provide you with energy for daily tasks and are the
primary fuel source for your brain's high energy demands. In addition, you’ve learned
the classes of carbohydrates. So before we move to the next lesson your task is to
identify first the classes of carbohydrates given below:
1. Glucose
2. Cellulose
3. Lactose
4. Starch
5. Maltose
6. fructose
Great job!
It is good to know that you still remember the previous lesson.
LESSON
In the previous module, you’ve learned about the carbohydrates, which is one
of the biomolecules. Another biomolecule that we will discuss is lipid.
Lipids are naturally occurring organic substances that can be isolated from
cells in addition to tissues by extraction with nonpolar solvent. These contain
carbon, hydrogen and oxygen atoms that form a framework for the structure and
function of living cells. Lipid molecules in the human body can be synthesized in the
liver and are typically found in butter, whole milk, oil, cheese, food that is fried and
in red meats too.
https://www.ck12.org/biology/lipids/lesson/Lipids-BIO/
Figure 1. Lipids
What are lipids made up of?
Lipids are made up of a glycerol molecule and it is connected to three fatty

acid molecules. Such a lipid is called triglyceride. Fatty acids are organic compounds
that have the general formula CH3(CH2)nCOOH, where n usually ranges from 2 to 28
and is always an even number.
Triglyceride Molecule. The left part of this triglyceride molecule represents glycerol. Each of the three long
chains on the right represents a different fatty acid.
Lipid Structure
Lipids are the polymers of fatty acids that contain a long, non-polar
hydrocarbon chain with a small polar region containing oxygen. The fatty acids can
be saturated or unsaturated as shown below:
Figure 2. Lipid Structure – Saturated and Unsaturated Fatty Acids
Saturated Fatty Acids- only contains single bonds between neighboring carbons in
the hydrocarbon chain. These are commonly found in animals’ meat.
Unsaturated Fatty Acids- contains double bonds in the hydrocarbon chains. These
lipids are usually plants based.
Classes of Lipids
Lipids
Simple Compound Miscellaneous

Steroids:
Lipids: Lipids: Vitamin A, D,
Cholesterol
Fats/Oils, Glycolipids, E, K
Waxes Phospholipids
Classes of Lipids
The discussions on the classes of lipids in this module is limited only to simple lipids,
compound lipids and steroids
Simple Lipids are esters of fatty acids with different alcohols.
• Fats/Oils
Animal fats and vegetable oils are the most widely occurring lipids. Fats are esters
of fatty acid with glycerol which is usually in solid state at room temperature while
oils are fats in liquid state. Lard and butter are examples of animal fats. On the other
hand, corn oil, olive oil, sesame oil are examples of oils. Fats in right amount is
significant in proper functions of the body. For a longer time, fats able to store energy
and provide body’s insulation.
Chemically fats and oils are called triacylglycerols or triglycerides -describes
as triesters of glycerols with three long chain carboxylic acids.
• Waxes
Waxes are esters of fatty acids with monohydroxyl alcohol (one hydroxylgroup)
having high molecular weight. They are observed in nature. Examples are the
waxy coating of fruits and leaves which protect them from dehydration. In
addition, birds feather and fur of some animals have the same coatings which
serve as water repellent.
Compound Lipids
are esters of fatty acids and alcohols containing additional groups such as
phosphates, nitrogenous base and others.
• Glycolipids
Upon hydrolysis glycolipids formed fatty acids, sphingosine or glycerol, and a
carbohydrate. They are occurring in all tissues on the outside surface of the plasma
membrane.
• Phospholipids
are esters of fatty acids with glycerol containing an esterified phosphoric acid and
a nitrogen base. They are abundant in nerve tissue, brain, liver, kidney, pancreas
and heart. Phospholipids have biological functions such as; (1) help in blood clotting,
(2) serve as transport of inorganic ions across the membrane and (3) increase
oxidation of fatty acids
Steroids
Steroids have fused ring which is different from fats and phospholipids. They
are classified as lipid because they are also hydrophobic and insoluble in water even
if they do not resemble.
In humans, most steroids function as hormones, which are chemical

messengers that are secreted by glands and transported through the bloodstream to
target tissues.
• Cholesterol
Cholesterol is a common steroid which is composed of four-fused rings. It has a

wax-like substance, located only in animal source foods. There are different types of
cholesterol found in the blood cells they are triglycerides, Low Density Lipoprotein
(LDL), High Density Lipoprotein (HDL), and Very Low Density Lipoproteind (VLDL).
Cholesterol is synthesized in the liver and a precursor to vitamin D and to many
significant steroid hormones like testosterone, estrogen, progesterone which are
secreted by the gonads and endocrine glands. Thus, it serves a vital function in the
body’s reproductive system.
Cholesterol is also the precursor to bile salts, which help in the emulsification of fats
and their absorption by cells.
Properties of Lipids
Lipids plays an important role in the body and it yields a high amount of energy.
And there are some significant characteristics.
• Lipids are stored in adipose tissue of the body which is normally an oily
nonpolar molecule.
• Lipids are composed of different group of compounds which are mainly
composed of hydrocarbon chains.
• It gives energy for various life.
• It is soluble in nonpolar solvents and insoluble in water
Functions of Lipids
Lipids perform many functions, such as:
• Acts as energy storage

• Provides insulation
• Acts as structural component of the body
• Precursor in biological membranes
• Acts as hormones
• Acts as major sources of energy in animals and high lipid-containing seeds
• Serves as enzyme activator
• Serves as Protection – e.g. protecting plant leaves from dehydration
ACTIVITIES
ACTIVITY 1: “Behavior of Lipids”

Direction: Fill a clear jar or container half-full of water. To the water,
add a half cup of any cooking oil. Do not mix the two liquids. What do
you observe?
1. Does the water mix with the oil? Which liquid stays on top of the
other?
2. Gently stir the two liquids. What happens? Does the oil mix with
the water after stirring? (Don’t shake the jar)
3. What can you say about lipids? Are lipids soluble or insoluble in water?
4. Have you ever gotten a fat on your hands, like butter or margarine? You probably
know that you can’t wash these fats off right? What are you going to do to remove
it?
ACTIVITY 2: “Lipids Worksheet”
Direction: Fill in the blanks.
Lipids organic molecules because (1) _____________________________________ .

They are mainly consists of three elements which are (2)________________,
_____________, and __________________. Many lipids are formed by the attachment of
three (3)__________________ to glycerol. Lipids could be saturated or unsaturated. The
carbon chain in a saturated lipid are all (4) ________________ bonded while
unsaturated lipids has (5) _____________ bonds in its carbon chain. An example of
unsaturated lipid in our diet is (6)_____________ and an example of saturated fatty
acid in our diet is (7) _____________. Lipids can be synthesized in the
(8)_______________ and its main functions are (9)___________________ and
(10)_______________________.
ACTIVITY 3: “Interactive Map”

Direction: Fill the diagram with the appropriate word. Choose your answer in the
box below.
3 4 5
A. Insulation
B. steroids
C. fats/ oils
D. waterproofing
E. membrane
WRAP-UP
What are the three things you’ve learned in the lesson of lipids?
1._______________________________________________________________
2._______________________________________________________________
3._______________________________________________________________
VALUING
Lipids and Health
Around the globe lipids also are widely recognized as a major player in human
health issues. According to the study of National Institutes of Health, the disease of
millions of people is greatly affected by lipid imbalances. High cholesterol, impacts
cardiovascular disease which is a number one killer. Aside from this many other
diseases are related to lipid imbalance such as Alzheimer’s disease, cancer, asthma,
rheumatoid arthritis and other inflammatory diseases. Therefore, it is necessary that
everyone must be aware in taking good care of our health. Especially the food that
we are consuming nowadays. As a concern individual how can you promote with in
your family the healthy life style?
POSTTEST
sheet of paper.
1.Which of the following macro-molecule can be most structurally diverse among

the living world?
A. carbohydrates C. nucleic acid
B. lipids D. proteins
2. Micelles of fatty acids in water are organized such that the __________ faces the
solvent and the __________ are directed toward the interior
A. carboxylic acid groups, hydrocarbon chains heads

B. hydrophilic heads, hydrophobic tails
C. hydrocarbon chains, carboxylic acid groups
D. both (a) and (b)
3. Synthesis of fatty acid takes place when

A. fatty acid are plentiful
B. carbohydrate is plentiful
C. carbohydrate and energy are plentiful
D. none of these is the best classification of this compound
4. Some functions of lipids include water-proofing, temperature regulation, and

long-term energy storage. Which of the following is NOT a common type of lipids?
A. Fats C. sugars
B. Oils D. waxes
5. After consumption of a mixed meal, a complex cascade of events takes place that
integrates fat metabolism at the whole body level. Which of the following is correct?
A. Consumption of a meal leads to suppression of lipase activity within
adipose tissue leading to a decrease in plasma NEFA concentrations.
B. Adipose tissue lipoprotein lipase is activated by insulin and therefore is
most active following meal consumption.
C. During the postprandial period the VLDL synthesis pathway is suppressed
in favour of hydrolysis of chylomicrons
D. All options given are correct
KEY TO CORRECTION
Activity 2
1. C 2. D 3. D 4. B 5. B 1. it contains hydrocarbons
2. carbon, hydrogen, oxygen
3. fatty acids
4. single
Recap (What I Know)
5. double
1. Monosaccharide
6. olive oil, corn oil
2. Polysaccharide
3. Disaccharide 7. butter, lard
4. Polysaccharide 8. liver
5. Disacharide 9. energy storage
6. Monosaccharide 10. structural framework
Activity 3
1. C 2. B 3. A
Activities (What's More) 4.E 5. D
Activity 1: Wrap-Up
1.No 2. Oil 3.temporarily mix Based on what they’ve learned
4. No 5.insoluble in water Post-Test (What I Have Learned)
6.yes, wash with soap & water 1. B 2. D 3. A 4. C 5. D
REFERENCES
Inc..2010.
Bookstore Inc.2016.
Rodrigo Valenzuela B. .Alfonso Valenzuela B.Overview About Lipid Structure. January 23rd 2013.
https://www.intechopen.com/books/lipid-metabolism/overview-about-lipid-structure
CK-12 Foundation 2020. Lipids. https://www.ck12.org/biology/lipids/lesson/Lipids-BIO/?referrer=concept_details
Dotson, D. J. Lipids: Definition, Structure, Function & Examples. https://sciencing.com/lipids-facts-and-functions-

13714439.html
Gupta, Anil.Lipids.https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-981-13-1035-5_7
Health Effects Associated with Lipids. copyright 2003-2020 Study the..https://study.com/academy/lesson/health-effect-
associated-with-lipids.html.
Sagar. Aryal. Lipids- definition, properties, structure, types, examples, functions.2018. https://microbenotes.com/lipids-
properties-structure-classification-and-functions/
Taneja, A..Lipids Types: Simple, Compound and Derived Lipids.2019. https://www.biologydiscussion.com/lipids/lipids-
types-simple-compound-and-derived-lipids/41880
Thompson, Thomas E. Lipid biochemistry. Feb 21, 2020. https://www.britannica.com/science/lipid
General
Chemistry 1 11
Quarter 2
Polymers of Proteins
EXPECTATIONS
carbohydrates. After going through this module, you are expected to:
• describe the formation, structure and properties of polymers of proteins

and relate them to their function;
• demonstrate an understanding about the polymers of proteins;
• recognize the importance of proteins in man’s life.
PRETEST
Let’s try to answer this! Choose the letter of the best answer.
1. What do you call the repeating units of protein?

A. amino acids C. glucose units
B. fatty acids D. peptides
2. Which is the feature of the primary structure of protein?
A. Subunit structure of protein
B. Helical structure of protein
C. 3 dimentional structure of protein
D. Linear sequence of amino acids joined by peptide bond
3. A How does the tertiary structure of a protein differ from the secondary
structure?
A. The tertiary structure has a 3D shape, while the secondary structure is
often folded or pleated.
B. The tertiary structure is made of two or more polypeptides, while the
secondary structure is made form only one polypeptide.
C. The tertiary structure is pleated into an alpha helix, while the secondary
structure is completely linear.
D. The tertiary structure is a sequence of amino acids, while the secondary
structure contains several polypeptides.
4. Which is NOT a function of proteins?
A. serve as the primary energy source
B. make up body structures
C. act as hormones
D. act as enzymes
5. The major protein component of human hair is α-keratin. Hair ‘straighteners’
are commonly used tools which use heat to iron hair into temporarily lying
flat and straight. What is the best biological explanation for this phenomenon?
A. Hair straighteners disrupt ionic bonds between -keratin molecules.
B. Hair straighteners denature protein by disrupting the pH.
C. Hair straighteners disrupt hydrogen bonds in -keratin
D. Hair straighteners disrupt disulfide bridges in -keratin
RECAP
Lipids are also recognized as a major player in human health issues. Thus, it
is necessary to watch for the lipid profile of an individual to avoid health problem.
In addition, there are different classes of Lipids. Can you identify the classes of
lipids given below?
1. Fats/oil
2. Phospholipids
3. Cholesterol
4. Waxes
5. Vitamins A,D,E,K
God job! Your retention is so good!
LESSON
Have you ever think which is responsible for your curly or straight hair, the
keratin of your skin and fingernails, the insulin that regulates glucose metabolism
in the body and the DNA polymerase that catalyzes the synthesis of DNA in cells?
It sounds interesting right? Do you know that proteins are responsible for all
the listed functions? Yes! Proteins are large biomolecules that found in every living
organism. They are of many types and have a lot of biological functions.
What are proteins made of ?

Proteins are made up of many amino acid units linked together by amide
bonds in a long chain. Below is the structure of amino acid.
Have you observed the two functional groups of amino acids? What are they?
A. Basic amino group (NH2)
B. Acidic carboxyl group (COOH)
Amino acid serves as the building blocks for proteins stems. And there are 20
kinds of amino acids depending on their R-group. The simplest amino acid is glycine
where R is a hydrogen atom. The chain of amino acids linked together with fewer
than 50 are usually called peptides. Thus, when many amino acids are linked
together through peptide bonds, this molecule is known as polypeptide. When a
very large number of amino acids are linked together it results in a protein.
Classes of Proteins
Proteins
Simple Conjugated Derived

Proteins Proteins Proteins
Figure 1. Classes of Proteins
1. Simple Proteins- yield only amino acids and no other compounds on hydrolysis.
A. Fibrous Proteins- consist of polypeptide chains arrange side by side in long

filaments and insoluble in water. Examples: keratin in nails and hair, collagen
in muscle
B. Globular Proteins-nearly circular shapes, which normally coiled into compact.
They are soluble in water. Examples: hemoglobin from blood, insulin, enzyme
2. Conjugated Proteins-yield other compounds in addition to amino acids on

hydrolysis. It is more common than simple proteins.
3. Derived Proteins-They are formed from large molecular weight proteins by the
action of heat, enzymes or chemical agents, thus they have lower molecular
weights. They are derivatives or degraded products of simple and conjugated
proteins. They may be :
a. Primary derived protein: Proteans, Metaproteins, Coagulated proteins
b. Secondary derived proteins: Proteosesn or albunoses, peptones,
peptides.
Different Levels of Protein Structure
The different functions of proteins are dependent on the sequence and

structure of proteins. Thus, there are different levels of Protein Structure:
1. Primary Structure-it is the sequence of amino acids which is linear and
linked together by peptide bonds. It is the most fundamental structural level.
2. Secondary Structure- in this level the polypeptide chain can twist and fold
in different ways because single bonds in the polypeptide chain allow rotation.
3. Tertiary structure- in this level the entire protein molecules coils into an
overall three dimensional shape.
4. Quaternary Structure- in this level several protein molecules join together to

form a bigger cluster structure.
https://www.google.com/search?q=different+level+of+structure+of+proteins&rlz
1C1CHBD_enPH825PH913&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiDgIJhIbrAh
WFQN4KHeqGDPgQAUoAXoECA0QAw&biw=1366&bih=657#imgrc=3J52drLFpk6_YM
Property of Protein
1. Denaturation. A partial or complete unfolding of the natural conformation of

the polypeptide chain. This is caused by heat, acids, alkalies, alcohol,
acetone, urea, beta- mercaptoethanol.
2. Coagulation. Insoluble aggregates called coagulum are formed when proteins
are denatured by heat. There are few proteins like albumins, globulins are
heat coagulable.
3. Isoelectric pH. A pH in which the negative and positive charges has equal
number.
4. Molecular Weights of Proteins. Different proteins have different amino acid
composition and hence their molecular weights differ. The molecular weights
of proteins range from 5000 to 10 9 Daltons
Functions of Proteins
Proteins functions are endless and are essential for the growth and repair.
They also have broad diversity of biological function and are the most significant final
products of the information pathways. Here are some of the biological functions of
proteins:
1. They act as biological catalyst (enzyme) such as chymotrypsin.
2. They act as the defense against infections by means of protein antibodies.
3. They are responsible in the transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide by
hemoglobin and special enzymes in the red cells.
4. They serve as structural components such as keratin of hair and nail, collagen
of bone etc.
5. They act as hormone that regulate body processes such as insulin.
6. They serve as the storage of nutrients such as casein.
7. They are involved in blood clotting through thrombin, fibrinogen and other
protein factors.
ACTIVITIES
ACTIVITY 1: “Protein Facts”

Direction: Answer the questions below.
1. What elements (atoms) are proteins made of?

2. Unlike carbohydrates and lipids, proteins contain which element?
3. What types of food can you find proteins in ?
4. What is the monomer of a protein?
5. What part an amino acid’s chemistry determines the function of a protein?
6. How many different common amino acids are there?
7. What type of catalyst is made of proteins?
8. What organic compound is made of proteins and help fight disease?
ACTIVITY 2: “The Hierarchy of Protein Structure”

Study and analyze the level of Protein Structure, and answer the guide questions
below.
1.Which structure of a protein consists of a linear sequence of amino acids?

2. Which protein structure gives the protein its actual function?
3. Which protein structure has coiled regions folded into a 3-D shape?
4. Which protein structure has two or more polypeptides bound to each other ?
5. Which protein structure has two possible helices?
ACTIVITY 3: “Nutrition Question Card”
Direction: Proteins have different functions in our body. Answer the nutrition card
in the boxes below.
Protein Protein
If I don’t eat enough protein this could Name three protein rich foods.
happen...
a. nails fall off
b. you lose your balance and fall
c. hair falls off, teeth will rot
Protein Fats
What does protein do for you? What food group causes the calories to
a. changes your hair color triple in
b. helps you grow chicken if it is fried?
c. makes you popular in school
d. allows you to eat more candy
WRAP-UP
Let’s take a closer look at the chemistry of protein. Fill in the blanks.
Proteins are natural polymers. They are made from the linkage of monomers called
(1)____________________. Amino acids have two functional groups; namely,
(2)________________ and (3)_______________. The bond that links amino acids together
is known as (4)______________. There are different level of protein structure namely:
(5)______________, ________________,_____________,_____________. There are important
functions of proteins, such as ___________________________.
VALUING
The Power of Protein
Protein is an essential component of every cell in the body. And, it is an
important building block of bones, muscles, cartilage, skin, and blood. Thus,
everyone needs a right amount of protein intake which come from the food we eat.
Like what they always remind us “health is wealth”. So, as an individual how can
you make yourself healthy and physically fit?
POSTTEST
Direction: Choose the letter of the best answer.
1.Which part of the amino acid gives it uniqueness?

A. Amino group C. Side chain
B. Carboxyl group D. None of the mentioned
2. Which of the following information is responsible to specify the three-
dimensional shape of a protein?
A. The protein’s peptide bond
B. The protein’s amino acid sequence
C. The protein’s interaction with other polypeptides
D. The protein’s interaction with molecular chaperons
3. During the formation of the peptide bond which of the following takes place?
A. Hydroxyl group is lost from its carboxyl group of one amino acid and a
hydrogen atom is lost from its amino group of another amino acid
B. Hydrogen atom is lost from its carboxyl group of one amino acid and a
hydroxyl group is lost from its amino group of another amino acid
C. Hydroxyl group is lost from its carboxyl group of one amino acid and a
hydroxyl group is lost from its amino group of another amino acid
D. Hydrogen atom is lost from its carboxyl group of one amino acid and a
hydrogen atom is lost from its amino group of another amino acid?
4. The building blocks of proteins are ______ naturally occurring amino acids, small
molecules that contain a free amino group (NH2) and a free carboxyl group (COOH).
A. nine C. ten
B. nineteen D. twenty
5. Mother of a malnourished child has been instructed to include a complete protein
in diet for her child, which out of the followings proteins should be recommended?
A. Milk C. Pulses
B. Soy Protein D. Wheat
KEY TO CORRECTION
Pre-Test (Asessment) Activity 2

1. A 2. D 3. A 4. A 5. D
1. Primary
Recap (What I Know) 2. Quaternary
1. Simple 3. Tertiary
2. compound 4. Quaternary
3. steroid 5. Secondary
4. simple
5. miscellaneous
Activity 3
Activities C Chicken,steak, pork
Activity 1: B Fats/oils
1. C,H,O,N
2. Nitrogen Wrap-Up
3. Grow foods 1. Amino acids
4. Amino acid 2. Amino group
5. Side chain 3. carboxyl group
6. 20 4. Peptide bond
7. Enzyme 5. Primary,secondary,tertiary,quaternary
8. antibodies 6. biological catalyst, storage, antibodies,
etc.
1. C 2. B 3. A 4. D 5. A
REFERENCES
Inc..2010.
Bookstore Inc.2016.
McMurry, John.Fundamentals of Organic Chemistry.4 th Edition
Conneely.D. Amino Acids and Protein. https://www.scienceteacherprogram.org/biology/DConneely08.html
Freeman W. H., W.H. and Company. Protein Structure and Function. 2002.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK21177/
Haurowitz, F. Protein biochemistry. Jul 8, 2020 https://www.britannica.com/science/protein
KidsKonnect, Protein Facts & Worksheets. September 26, 2019. <a href="https://kidskonnect.com/science/protein/">Protein Facts &
Worksheets: https://kidskonnect.com</a> - KidsKonnect, mino Acids and Protein
Saja, D..Proteins: Functions, Structure, Properties and Classification. https://www.biologydiscussion.com/proteins/proteins-functions-
structure-properties-and-classification/16912
Sagar, A Proteins- Properties, Structure, Classification and Functions.January 9, 2020. https://microbenotes.com/proteins-properties-
structure-classification-and-functions/
General
Chemistry 1 11
Quarter 2
Polymers of Nucleic Acids
EXPECTATIONS
nucleic acids. After going through this module, you are expected to:
• describe the formation, structure and properties of polymers of nucleic

acids and relate them to their function;
• demonstrate an understanding about the polymers of nucleic acids;
• recognize the importance of nucleic acids in man’s life.
PRETEST
separate paper.
1. What type of biopolymers are formed from the linkage of monomers of

nucleotides?
A. carbohydrates C. nucleic acids
A. lipids D. proteins
2. What is the composition of nucleotide?

A. a base + a sugar C. a sugar + a phosphate
B. a base + a phosphate D. a base + a sugar + phosphate
3. Which of these is the functions of nucleotide?

A. information storage and transmission C. cell signalling
B. storage of chemical energy D. all of the above
4. How does RNA differ from DNA?

A. RNA contains uracil instead of thymine and it is usually double-stranded.
B. RNA contains thymine instead of uracil and it is usually single-stranded.
C. RNA contains uracil instead of thymine and it is usually single-stranded.
D. RNA contains uracil instead of cytosine.
5. DNA is an important therapeutic target for the intercalating agent class of

drugs. These drugs work by:
A. occupying the space between base pairs forming a stable complex.
B. forming hydrogen bonds with active site amino acid residues.
C. promoting the unwinding of the DNA double helix.
D. preventing the formation of base pairs.
RECAP
Based on the previous lesson, proteins have different significant functions in
the body. So, as you go further with the next lesson can you answer first the
exercises below. Identify the type of protein which is being describe by its function
below.
1. Serve as a biological catalyst
2. Proteins involved in defending the body against infections
3. Act as hormone that regulate body processes
4. are carrier proteins which move molecules from one place to another
in the body.
Well done! Your retention is so good!
LESSON
What does that mean, when you have heard that something is “encoded in
your DNA”?
Do you know that Deoxyribonucleic acid or DNA, is the unique blueprints to

make the proteins that give you your traits? These blue prints are coming from your
mother and father; thus every person has unique set of blueprints or DNA.
Deoxyribonucleic acid, (DNA) and Ribonucleic acid (RNA are two types of
nucleic acid:). DNA is responsible for the transfer of genetic information from parents
to offspring and RNA is responsible for the synthesis of protein.
The name Nucleic acid is derived from where it is first found in the cell nuclei.
Nucleic acids, are long, chain-like molecules with very large molecular masses
(reaching into millions). They are made from thousands of repeating monomers called
nucleotides.
How DNA and RNA work?
DNA contains the genetic instructions for the correct sequence of amino acids
in proteins. To carry out these functions, DNA sequences must be converted into
messages that can be used to produce proteins, which are the complex molecules
that do most of the work in our bodies.
On the other hand, RNA uses the information in DNA to assemble the correct
amino acids and help make the protein.
The molecule that holds genetic information, makes an exact copy of itself
whenever a cell divides is known as DNA Replication. DNA controls the manufacture
of proteins within a cell through a process called protein synthesis.
The Structure of Nucleic Acids
Each nucleotide is made up of three parts:

1. A nitrogen base
a. Purines - adenine (A), and guanine (G)
b. Pyrimidines - cytosine (C) , thymine (T), uracil (U)
***Uracil is present in RNA only

Thymine is present in DNA only
2. A five-carbon sugar
a. Deoxyribose
b. Ribose
3. Phosphate
The Nucleotide
Phosphate Base
sugar
Figure 1. Nucleotide
What’s the Feature of DNA and RNA?
DNA RNA
Function Transfers genetic Involved in protein
information synthesis
Location Remains in the nucleus Leaves the nucleus
Structure Double helix Usually single strands
Sugar used deoxyribose ribose
Bases used Cytosine (C), thymine (T), Cytosine (C), uracil (U)
adenine (A), guanine (G) adenine (A), guanine (G),
DNA and RNA Composition
This image shows a comparison of a single-stranded RNA molecule and

a double-stranded DNA molecule. Sponk/Wikimedia Commons/CC BY-SA 3.0
In DNA, Adenine (A) always binds to Thymine (T), and guanine (G) always
binds to Cytosine (C). These base pairs are called complementary base pairs.
In RNA, thymine is replaced by uracil.

Properties of Nucleic Acids:
• Insoluble in alcohol, slightly soluble in cold water, but readily soluble in hot
water and dilute alkalies, forming alkali salts.
• They are precipitated by HCl and by excess of acetic acid.
• The difference of DNA and RNA are identified through Feulgen Test. The red
color of dye produce indicates the presence of deoxyribose, whine the ribose
sugar do not exhibit this reaction.
• Hydrolysis of nucleic acids gives nucleotide, which can be considered the
units that make up the polymer.
Biochemical Property of Nucleic Acids
1. Denaturation. The strands of the DNA double helix are held together by
hydrogen bonding interactions between the complementary base pairs.
Heating DNA in solution easily breaks these hydrogen bonds, allowing the
two strands to separate
2. Ultraviolet absoption. DNA melting and reassociation can be monitored by
measuring the absorption of ultraviolet (UV) light at a wavelength of 260
nanometres.
3. Chemical Modification. After a DNA molecule has been assembled, it may be
chemically modified—sometimes deliberately by special enzymes called DNA
methyltransferases and sometimes accidentally by oxidation, ionizing
radiation, or the action of chemical carcinogens.
Functions of Nucleic Acids
1. Nucleic Acids Store Information Like Computer Code. DNA is the chemical basis
of heredity and may be regarded as the reserve of genetic information.
2. Protecting the Information. RNA, another type of nucleic acid copies
information to carries DNA’s instruction to other parts of the cell since DNA
can’t leave the nucleus.
3. DNA is exclusively responsible for maintaining the identity of different species
of organisms over millions of years.
ACTIVITIES
ACTIVITY 1: “Getting to know Me Better”

Direction: Fill in the missing blank by answering the appropriate word for each item.
1. The two types of nucleic acids are __________and _________.
2. The ladder- like structure of DNA is known as ___________.
3. The rungs of the DNA ladder are made of ________________.
4. The nucleic acids are polymers of ____________________.
5. The three components of the nucleotides are _____________, ______________,
and __________________
6. The sugar in DNA is ________________.
7. The four bases in DNA are __________,_____________,___________, and
__________.
8. In RNA thymine is replaced by _____________________.
9. ____ holds the two nucleotide strands together in DNA.
10. In DNA ________________base always pair with _____________ base and
______________ base always pair with ________________ base.
ACTIVITY 2: “Spot the Differences”

DNA and RNA are the types of nucleic acids. Fill in the blanks with the correct
word from the word bank below and color this molecule model.
Structural Difference of DNA and RNA

Word Bank:
Adenine Ribonucleic Acid Nucleobases of DNA
Base Pair Nucleobase Deoxyribose
RNA uracil helix of sugar phosphates
DNA thymine Nucleobases of RNA
Cytosine Guanine
ACTIVITY 3: “The 4 Biomolecules”

Direction: This activity requires your knowledge of the previous lesson and
this lesson. Just answer what is being asked and fill the table with the correct
statement/s or word/s.
Carbohydrates Lipids (Fats) Proteins Nucleic Acid
Monomer
(basic building
block)
Functions
(what are they
use for living
things?)
Examples
WRAP-UP
Let’s take a closer look at the chemistry of nucleic acids.
1. ___________________ are macromolecules that store genetic information and

enable protein production.
2. Nucleic acids include _____ and _____. These molecules are composed of long
strands of nucleotides.
3. ________________ are composed of a nitrogenous base, a five-carbon sugar, and
a phosphate group.
4. DNA is composed of a phosphate-deoxyribose sugar backbone and the
nitrogenous bases: _____________, ____________ , _________ , and ________.
5. RNA has ribose sugar and the nitrogenous bases A, G, C, and _______.
VALUING
An embryonic cell divides again and again. Where there was one cell there are
two, then four, then eight and so on. Each holds all the genetic information needed
to create a human being. How, exactly, do these cells make copies of themselves?
That is through DNA Replication right?
Hair grows from your head, nonstop, day in and day out. The cells of your hair
follicles somehow generate all of the protein that make up this hair. How is this
protein created? That is through protein synthesis. Therefore, how do DNA
replication and protein synthesis affect your life?
POSTTEST
sheet of paper.
1. The group of biologically important organic compounds responsible for storage

and transfer of information.
A. carbohydrates C. phospholipids
C. nucleic acids D. polypeptides
2. The nucleotides in DNA and RNA have three components: a sugar group, a
nitrogenous base, and a phosphate group. Adjacent nucleotides in a nucleic acid
are joined by a phosphodiester bond. This bond links the phosphate group of one
nucleotide to which one of the following components of a neighboring nucleotide?
A. base C. sugar
B. phosphate group D. all of the above
3. What unique ability does DNA have because it is double-stranded?

A. it can move around the cells
B. it serves as genetic material in all viruses
C. it can serve as a template for its own copying
D. none of the choices
4. Which of the following is true about the differences between DNA and RNA?
A. DNA is double stranded and RNA single stranded.
B. The sugar in their nucleotides is different.
C. Uracil replaces thymine in RNA.
D. All of the answers are correct.
5. Foot and mouth disease virus (FMDV) is the pathogen that causes foot and mouth
disease in livestock. An analysis of the genetic material of the ‘O’ strain of FMDV
showed that it contains 1996 adenine bases, 2131 guanine bases, 1642 uracil bases
and 2365 cytosine bases. Which one of the following describes the genetic material
of the virus?
A. single-stranded DNA C. single-stranded RNA
B.double-stranded DNA D.double-stranded RNA
KEY TO CORRECTION
Activity 3
1. C 2. D 3. D 4. C 5. A
Recap (What I Know)

1. enzyme 2. antibodies
3.insulin 4. Transport protein
Activities (What's More)

Activity 1:
1. DNA and RNA
2. Double helix
3. Nitrogen bases
4. nucleotides
5.base, sugar and phosphate Wrap-Up
6.deoxyribose 1. Nucleic acids
7. adenine, thymine, cytosine, guanine 2. DNA and RNA
8.uracil 9. Hydrogen bond 3. nucleotides
10. A & T, C & G 4. A,C,G, T
Activiy 2:
5. uracil
Please refer the answer on the picture of DNA
and RNA on the lesson proper Post-Test (What I Have Learned)
1. C 2. D 3. C 4. D 5. C
General
Chemistry 1 11
Quarter 2
Self-Learning Module
Properties of Matter
EXPECTATIONS
students. This lesson is about the preparation of some organic compounds.
Specifically, you are expected to:
1. describe the preparation of some organic compounds;

2. write synthesis reaction in the preparation of some organic compounds; and,
3. recognize the importance of synthesis of some organic compounds in daily life.
PRETEST
sheet of paper.
1. Which of the given choices is used in the preparation of ethanol using glucose?
A. Fermentation
B. Grignard Reagent
C. Fisher Esterification
D. Claisen-Schmidt Reaction
2. Which of the following reaction mixtures could be prepared to synthesize

ethanol?
A. Ethanol and acetic acid
B. Methanol and salicylic acid
C. Glucose and yeast as a catalyst
D. Anhydrous sodium acetate and concentrated sulphuric acid (catalyst)
3. Due to the pandemic, the production of these organic compounds is in demand.
What could be this organic compound?
A. Ethanol C. Carboxylic acid
B. Ethyl acetate D. Glacial Acetic acid
4. Esterification is used in the preparation of ethyl acetate with the use of what
reaction mixture?
A. ester and ketone C. alcohol and carboxylic acid
B. alcohol and ester D. carboxylic acid, alcohol and ester
5. Which of the following organic compounds is used in the production of paints and
perfumes?
A. Ethanol B. Acetic acid C. Ethyl acetate D. Salicylic acid
RECAP
You may find out that some of the questions are not familiar, don’t get
disappointed because this module is designed for you to make the topic easier to
understand.
Direction: Complete the table below.
Organic Compounds Examples of Organic Functional Group

Compounds
1. Alcohol
2. Ketone
3. Ether
4. Ester
5. Aldehyde
So, this time let us have a walkthrough on the preparation of some organic
compounds like acetic acid, ethanol, and ethyl ethanoate.
LESSON
“How did you cope up with the scarcity of alcohol

during the pandemic coronavirus?”
Many believed that alcohols particularly ethyl alcohol and isopropyl alcohol
are just some of the essential things that we used to protect ourselves in the amidst
of pandemic coronavirus. The demand for ethanol is increasing day by day due to its
wide application and especially in our situation now. Many of us are worried about
the limited stocks of alcohol during this pandemic. Panic buying is very evident in
many places.
Chemist presented ways to meet acing demands. Scarcity issues on this
essential alcohol have been one of the motivations of our chemist to identify ways or
procedures in preparing these organic compounds. The preparation of ethanol or
ethyl alcohol and some organic compounds is the focus of today`s topic. Ok, let us
have a walkthrough on the preparation of some organic compounds.
Preparation of some Organic Compounds
A. Preparation of Ethanol.
Ethyl alcohol or ethanol is produced through the following processes:
At the industrial level, ethanol is prepared using molasses fermentation. This

is a biological process where it uses sucrose from molasses that produces ethanol
and carbon dioxide.
In the laboratory, ethanol is prepared using the following procedure:

1. Glucose solution is mixed with yeast as a catalyst in a conical flask.
2. The temperature is maintained at 37°C because the speed of
fermentation reduces as the temperature reduces.
3. The flask is secured with a rubber bung.
4. The air is prevented from entering the set – up by attaching a test tube with
limewater to the conical flask.
The product of fermentation is carbon dioxide gas (CO2) which forms a white
precipitate in the limewater, then a dilute solution of ethanol (C2H5OH) up to about
15% is produced. In the preparation of higher alcohol content, it causes the yeast to
die and fermentation to stop. The separation of the product from the water is
collected under fractional distillation where ethanol will be distilled first at a boiling
temperature of 78°C. Remember that fermentation takes place in the absence of
oxygen, this is why airtight apparatus should be assured with the aid of rubber bung.
To prevent air from entering the apparatus limewater in the test tube is used.
A simple illustration is shown in figure 1 for the preparation of ethanol using

fermentation of glucose.
Source: https://icandochemistry.com/organic-chemistry-fermentation-of-glucose/
The chemical reaction in this preparation is shown below:

B. Preparation of Acetic Acid
Dilute acetic acid is commonly known as vinegar. Whereas an acetic acid that
contains no water or very low amount of water (less than 1%) is called
anhydrous(water-free) / glacial acetic acid. The reason why it is called glacial because
it solidifies into solid acetic acid crystals. Glacial acetic acid is used as either reactant
or solvent. Glacial acetic acid is also called ethanoic acid (CH3COOH), where a methyl
group is attached to a carboxyl group. In industry, it is simply referred to as AcOH
or C2H4O2. Acetic acid is unimaginably important in food, fabrics, synthetics,
adhesives, and medicines.
The following procedure is used in the preparation of acetic acid in the

laboratory:
1. 50 g of anhydrous sodium acetate (CH3COONa) is poured in a round bottom

flask.
2. 75 ml concentrated sulphuric acid (H2SO4) is added to an addition funnel.
3. Heat is introduced in the round bottom flask and the stopcock is opened to allow
the sulphuric acid to add in the anhydrous sodium acetate.
4. During the heating, an immediate bubbling and the production of white fumes
will be observed. Note that this reaction is exothermic.
5. The heat is turned a little as soon as all the sulphuric acid is added and replaced
with a thermometer.
6. The solution is boiled and all that came over in the distilling flask is collected
after 115 °C under the distillation process which is now the acetic acid (CH3COOH).
Since acetic acid is a liquid and its boiling point is lower than sulfuric acid, so
it is possible then to distill it off. However, one should be aware of the use of proper
safety equipment because of the high temperature and presence of concentrated
acids. The set-up is shown in figure 2 and the chemical reaction in the preparation
of acetic acid.
A Grignard reagent can also be used in the preparation of carboxylic acid. In

this process, it uses the reaction between methyl magnesium bromide and carbon
dioxide followed by acid hydrolysis that will give acetic acid.
With the availability of ethyl alcohol and acetic acid, the preparation of ethyl
acetate is possible. Let us find out how.
3. Preparation of Ethyl Acetate by Fisher Esterification
Esterification is a chemical reaction in which two reactants like alcohol and

acid react to form an ester and water as the reaction products. Esters are fragrant
substances that are volatile and have low boiling points. Many esters are beautiful
in aromas. Esterification reactions are used in manufacturing perfumes and
deodorants.
The reaction of carboxylic acid and alcohol is speeded up with the presence of
a catalyst like concentrated sulfuric acid H2SO4. Remember that catalyst speeds up
the reaction without being chemically changed during the reaction. Meaning that
after the reaction of esterification where carboxylic acid and alcohol are used up to
produce ester, sulfuric acid is still present. So in this preparation, one should be
aware of the corrosiveness of sulfuric acid and should be handled carefully. Wearing
gloves and goggles is a must.
In the laboratory, the preparation of ethyl acetate may use the following:
Alcohols Carboxylic acids

Ethanol Ethanoic acid
These procedures are followed to produce ethyl acetate.

1. Two (2) moles of ethanoic acid and 2 moles of ethanol is mixed in a test tube and
swirled.
2. 2-3 drops of concentrated sulfuric acid as the catalyst is added into the solution
and swirledt. Note that the reaction mixture in the test tube will get hot.
3. The test tube with the reaction mixture is placed in a beaker with 10 moles of
water.
4. That beaker is heated using a bunsen burner. Note: Bubbles in a test tube with
the reaction mixture will be observed. The boiling of the water in the mixture is also
expected.
5. The bunsen burner is turned off and the reaction mixture is cooled off.
6. The unreacting sulfuric acid, unreacting alcohol and ester were separated from
the test tube by filling another beaker with sodium carbonate and slowly pouring
this reaction mixture. The reaction starts with a fizzing sound and an oily top layer
of the mixture is evident which is now the ester called ethyl acetate.
7. The oily part of the mixture can either be separated by decantation using a
separatory funnel.
The given preparation of ester is so simple and can be executed in the

laboratory, but you must take note of the precautions like the distinctive smell and
corrosiveness of the acid. Methanol and salicylic acid can also be used in preparing
esters that can be executed in the laboratory. Figure 3 shows the set up used in the
preparation of ester or ethyl acetate.
Use these facts on the preparation of some organic compounds in answering
the following activities.
ACTIVITIES
Activity 1
Direction: Analyze each of the following statements whether it describes the

preparation of ethanol, acetic acid, and ethyl acetate. Write TRUE if the statement is
correct but if it’s false, change the underlined word or group of words to make the
whole statement true. Write your answer on a separate sheet of paper.
1. In the preparation of ethanol, we use Fisher Esterification.

2. Molasses Fermentation uses sugar to ferment alcohol as an organic compound.
3. The reaction of alcohol and carboxylic acid produces acetic acid.
4. Catalyst is used in the preparation of some organic compounds to speed up the
reaction without being chemically changed during the reaction.
5. The catalyst used in the preparation of ethanol is sulfuric acid.
Now, use these facts behind the preparation of some organic compounds in
answering Activity 2.
Activity 2
Direction: Complete the table below.
Preparation of ethanol by 1. _____________________________
Reactants Catalyst
2. 3.
Balanced synthesis reaction in the preparation of ethanol

4.
Preparation of Acetic acid
Reactants Catalyst
5. 6.
Balanced synthesis reaction in the preparation of acetic acid

7.
Preparation of Ethyl acetate by 8. __________________________________
Reactants Catalyst
9. 10. 11.
Balanced synthesis reaction in preparing ethyl acetate
12.
Let us have a try out on how well is your understanding in analyzing the importance
of the application of ethanol, acetic acid, and ethyl acetate as organic compounds in
our daily life. Do activity 3.
Activity 3
Direction: Analyze each of the following statements if the given important application
is related to ethanol, acetic acid, and ethyl acetate. Write (A) if it is an application
and (NA) if its not an application of the mentioned organic compounds.
1. Ethyl acetate is widely used in the production of paints.
2. Glacial acetic acid is used like vinegar in cooking dishes at home.
3. Distinctive aromas used in perfumes are due to the presence of ethanol.
4. Acetic acids are used in cleaning, laundry, cooking, and many other household
uses.
5. Acetic acid is one of the most commonly used substances in the production of
hand sanitizer during this pandemic coronavirus.
WRAP-UP
Direction: Write an essay that discusses the procedures on how to prepare ethanol,
acetic acid, and ethyl acetate. Your essay will be scored based on the following
rubrics: sequencing of events: 10 points, use of apparatus: 5 pts and clarity: 5 pts.
VALUING
Do you dream of becoming a businessman that can help others? In what simple
business can you apply the preparation of organic compounds? How can you help
others with that business?
POSTTEST
sheet of paper.
1. What organic compound is produced from the esterification of alcohol and

carboxylic acid?
A. Ethanol B. Acetic acid C. Ethyl acetate D. Salicylic acid
2. Fermentation is used in the preparation of ethanol as organic compound. This

only takes place in the absence of _________________.
A. Oxygen B. Water C. Carbon dioxide D. Glucose
3. What particular catalyst is used in the fermentation of glucose to synthesize

ethanol?
A. Water B. Yeast C. Sulfuric acid D. Sodium carbonate
4. Distillation is possible in separating the reaction mixture of sulfuric acid and what
organic compound?
A. Ethanol B. Ethyl acetate C. Ethanoic acid D. Salicylic acid
5. Which from the given synthesis reaction is used in the preparation of ethyl acetate?
A. H2SO4 + 2CH3COONa Na 2SO4 + 2CH3COOH
B. C6H12O6 (aq) Yeast 2C2H5OH (aq) + 2CO2 (g)
C. CH3COOH(l) + C2H5OH(l) Conc. H2SO4 CH3COOC2H5(l) + H2O(l)
D. CH3COOH(l) + C2H5OH(l) Conc. H2SO4 2CH3COOC2H3(l) + H2O(l)

KEY TO CORRECTION
Pretest Activities
1. A Activity 1 Activity 3
2. C 1. Ethyl acetate 1. A
3. A 2. TRUE 2. NA
4. C 3. Ethyl acetate 3. NA
5. C 4. TRUE 4. A
5. Yeast 5. NA
Recap Activity 2 Wrap Up

Depends on the given 1.Fermentation
answer from the 2. Glucose Depends on the given
students on the 3. Yeast answer from the
examples of organic 4. C6H12O6(aq) Yeast students
compounds aligned to 2C2H5OH (aq) + 2CO2 (g)
the given functional 5. Sodium Acetate
Posttest
group. 6. Sulfuric acid
1. C
7. H2SO4 +2CH3COONa
2. A
Na2SO4 + 2CH3COOH
3. B
8. Esterification
9. Ethanol 4. C
10. Acetic acid 5. C
11. Sulfuric acid
12.CH3COOH(l)+ C2H5OH(l)
Conc.H2SO4
CH3COOC2H5(l) + H2O(l)
REFERENCES
Channel, Chemistry. 2016. Preparation of Ethanol. December 14.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TCxob8PsK9o.
ColiN00B. 2019. ethanol-alcohol-molecule-3d-structural-formula.
https://www.needpix.com/photo/517691/ethanol-alcohol-molecule-3d-structural-formula.
Falzone, Annelisse. 1998. The synthesis of Some Organic Compounds and their Representative
Structures. https://scienceteacherprogram.org/chemistry/Falzone98.html.
Helmenstine, Anne Marie. 2020. what-is-glacial-acetic-acid. February 11.
https://www.thoughtco.com/what-is-glacial-acetic-acid-4049300.
libraby, Manualzzz The universal manual. 2020. /synthesizing-ethyl-acetate-by-fisher-esterification.
https://manualzz.com/doc/20121745/synthesizing-ethyl-acetate-by-fisher-esterification.
Mcbride, John, and Joyce Phooko. 2018. NECT Gr 12 Making Esters. Jan 5.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AILt5HAYJTs.
NileRed. 2014. How to make Glacial Acetic Acid? July 9.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8iG_qnkF08Y&t=44s.
Paradoxchem126. 2012. Synthesis of Ethyl Acetate. November.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cFxZ0NircIk.
Puah, Tara. 2017. organic-chemistry-fermentation-of-glucose. https://icandochemistry.com/organic-
chemistry-fermentation-of-glucose/.

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General Chemistry I - Q2 SLM

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1. The electron configuration of an atom with an atomic number of 15 is __________.

2. Which of the following is a configuration of an element found in Group 2 of the

4. Which of the following represents the orbital diagram of 4d 5 configuration?

The following is an example of this notation:

2. Pauli’s Exclusion Principle

To write the electron configurations and orbital diagrams successfully, you

Step 2: Bearing in mind Aufbau principle, look at the electron configuration

Electron Configuration Orbital Diagram

1. Which of the following is a noble gas configuration?

2. An element was found to have the following numbers of subatomic particles

4. A diamagnetic material is characterized by its repulsion of magnetic field. Which

5. Which of the following elements is likely to exhibit paramagnetism?

a. Pauli’s Exclusion Principle

Writing the electron configuration of an atom can sometimes be a tedious task

Step 1: Write the electron configuration

1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5

Step 2: Analyze the configuration and

1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5

[Ne] 3s2 3p5

There is another way to approach this problem.

Step 1: Take note of the number of electrons to be distributed.

In this case, Cl has 17 electrons

[Ne] 3s2 3p5

Another concept is the magnetic property of an element. In this module, we will

Paramagnetism (attracted to magnetic field) refers to the magnetic state of an atom

Diamagnetism (repelled by magnetic field), on the other hand, is characterized by

Let’s have an example. Identify whether 17Cl is paramagnetic or diamagnetic.

Step 1: Write the electron configuration of the atom

[Ne] 3s2 3p5

Step 2: Draw the orbital diagram of the atom

An atom can either be paramagnetic or diamagnetic in nature. This magnetic

2. Which of the following are the allowable values of ml if l is equal to 1?

3. Which set of quantum numbers uniquely defines one of the electrons in an

Principal Quantum Number (n)

Likewise, 2d9 has a principal quantum number of 2

Azimuthal or Angular Momentum Quantum Number (l)

Magnetic Quantum Number (ml)

Step 1: Write the orbital diagram of the configuration:

Example: What is the magnetic quantum number of 2d 9?

Step 1: Write the orbital diagram of the configuration:

Spin Quantum Number (ms)

Step 1: Write the orbital diagram of the configuration:

Step 1: Write the orbital diagram of the configuration:

Observed that the last electron is paired. Therefore, the ms = -1/2

2. Which quantum number/s do 2s and 2p orbitals have in common?

3. Which of the following configuration is correctly described by the following set of

“Quantum Numbers.” Boundless Chemistry. Accessed August 10, 2020

1. draw the Lewis structure of ions and compounds

3. Which of the following is the correct Lewis structure for NO 2-?

4. Which of the following is the correct Lewis structure for CF4?

5. What is the formal charge of phosphorus in PF5?

We also use symbols in Chemistry like Lewis Symbol. It is a symbol in which

Lewis Structure is a graphic representation of the electron distribution in a

Let’s have an example:

Step 1: Determine the total number of valence electrons.

In the skeleton structure, we already used four of our valence electrons (a

FC = # valence electrons – (no. of bonded electrons + no. of non-bonded electrons)

In the water molecule, the following are the formal charges:

Let’s have another example:

Step 1: The total number of valence electrons is 24

5 + (6 x 3) = 23 + 1 (because of the -1 charge of nitrate) = 24

Step 2: The central atom is N.