CHAPTER 1&2: NUCLEAR REACTION AND ORIGIN OF ELEMENTS
DEFINITION OF TERMS
NUCLEAR REACTIONS - processes in which
one or more nuclides are produced from the
collisions between two atomic nuclei or one
atomic nucleus and a subatomic particle.
NUCLEAR FUSION - a reaction in which two
or more atomic nuclei are combined to form
one or more different atomic nuclei and
subatomic particles (neutrons or protons).
NUCLEAR FISSION - a process in which the
nucleus of an atom splits into two or more
smaller nuclei.
RADIOACTIVITY – the process involves the
emission of energetic particles of an atom.
ALPHA PARTICLE – high speed particle
consisting of 2 protons and 2 neutrons.
BETA PARTICLE – high speed electron
GAMMA RAY – high energy stream of protons.
NUCLEUS – the middle of the atom, and is
made up of protons and neutrons. This is the
bundle of particles that the electrons circle.
ELEMENTARY PARTICLE - Cannot be broken
down into smaller subunits.
NEUTRONS – no charge
ELECTRONS - negative charge.
PROTONS – positively charge
POSITRON – positive charged electron
ATOM - The tiniest particle of an element that
retains the chemical properties of that element.
ATOMIC NUMBER - the number of protons in
an atom.
ATOMIC MASS - sum weight of protons and
neutrons in an atom.
COSMIC ORIGIN OF THE ELEMENTS
BIG BANG NUCLEOSYNTHESIS - formed the
light elements (H, He and Li).
STELLAR NUCLEOSYNTHESIS - formed the
heavier elements than Be and Fe.
SUPERNOVA NUCLEOSYNTHESIS - formed
the heavier elements than Fe.
A TIMELINE ON THE BRIEF HISTORY
ON MATTER AND ATOMS
[450 BC] EMPEDOCLES asserted that all
things are composed of four primal elements,
earth, air, fire and water
[400 BC] DEMOCRITUS proposed that all
matter is made up of very small particles called
atoms, which cannot be divided into smaller
units.
[380-320 BC] ARISTOTLE proposed that all
matter was continuous and can be further
divided infinitely into smaller pieces.
[1799] JOSEPH PROUST proposed the law of
definite proportions
[1808] JOHN DALTON formulated the atomic
theory and proposed the law of multiple
proportions.
[1869] DMITRI MENDELEEV arranged the
known elements in a periodic table based on
their atomic mass.
[1890] ANTOINE BECQUEREL AND MARIE
CURIE observed that radioactivity causes
some atoms to break down spontaneously.
[1895] WILHELM RÖNTGEN discovered X-
rays.
[1897] JOSEPH JOHN THOMSON discovered
electrons.
[1904] JOSEPH JOHN THOMSON suggested
the plum pudding model of the atom
[1908-1917] ROBERT MILIKAN found that the
charge of an electron is equal to -1.6022x10-
19C.
[1910-1911] ERNEST RUTHERFORD
observed that atoms are mostly empty space.
[1913] NIELS BOHR proposed an atomic
model that shows electrons move in concentric
orbits around the nucleus.
[1913] HENRY GWYN JEFFREYS MOSELEY
used X-ray spectra to study atomic structure.
[1919] ERNEST RUTHERFORD discovered
protons.
[1932] JAMES CHADWICK discovered
neutrons.
 CHAPTER 3: CHEMICAL BONDING

DEFINITION OF TERMS
CHEMICAL BOND – the type of the force that holds two or more atoms together. It is the attraction
between positive nuclei and their negative electrons.
IONIC BOND – results from the transfer of one or more valence electrons from one atom to another.
IONIC BONDING - formed between a metal and a nonmetal due to a large difference in their
electronegativity.
INTRAMOLECULAR FORCE –are the forces that hold atoms together within a molecule.
Intermolecular forces are forces that exist between molecules.
COVALENT BOND – the electrical attraction between the nuclei and valence electrons of an atom
and which binds atoms together.
METALLIC BONDS – bonds holding metal atoms together.
METALLIC BONDING - exists in metals when a metal chemically bonds to either a similar metal or to
other metals to form alloys.
ELECTRONEGATIVITY – the measure of the tendency of an atom to attract electrons toward itself.
NON POLAR COVALENT BOND – the type of covalent bond that results when bonded atoms
equally share electrons.
POLAR COVALENT BOND – the type of covalent bond that results when bonded atoms do not
equally share electrons.
POLARITY – the distribution of electrical charge over the atoms joined by the bond.
IONIC COMPOUNDS – a chemical compound consisting of cations and anions.
MOLECULAR COMPOUNDS – refers to a chemical compound with molecules as its simplest units.
METALS - are malleable, which means they can be bent or shaped. This property is attributed to the
layered arrangement of atoms comprising a metal.
 CHAPTER 4: INTERMOLECULAR FORCES OF ATTRACTION

DEFINITION OF TERMS
INTERMOLECULAR FORCES OF ATTRACTION - refer to the weak forces that exist between
molecules.
INTERMOLECULAR FORCES – attractive forces that occur between molecules
INTRAMOLECULAR FORCES – also known as bonds that occur between atoms in a molecule
TYPE OF INTRAMOLECULAR FORCES: IONIC BONDING & COVALENT BONDING

TYPES OF INTERMOLECULAR FORCES

LONDON DISPERSION FORCE - the only attractive forces existing or present among atoms in noble
gases and non-polar molecular compounds.
DIPOLE-DIPOLE FORCE - IMFA acting on a polar molecules. Forces of attraction between
oppositely charged ends of polar molecules
HYDROGEN BOND – a special type of dipole-dipole interaction. It results when a hydrogen atom
bonded to a highly electronegative atom is attracted to an unshared pair of electrons of an
electronegative atom of another molecule

APPLICATIONS OF IMFA
MEDICAL AND DENTAL DEVICE - also well known for application towards prosthetic implants.
Medical implants are devices that are used to replace missing body parts. Silicones are synthetic
polymers whose backbone is made up of repeating covalently bonded silicon and oxygen atoms. It
can be made from skin, body tissues, metal, plastics, or ceramics. A compound to make medical
implants happen is called hydroxyapatite. Silicones are synthetic polymers whose backbone is made
up of repeating covalently bonded silicon and oxygen atoms.
SPORTS EQUIPMENT - tennis racket frames and bicycle frames are made of carbon fiber composite
nanomaterials such as carbon nanotube and graphene.
CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS - provides the strength and stability of a structure. Physical
properties help architects and builders decide which materials will best suit the purpose of the final
structure.
ELECTRONIC DEVICES - Material characteristics are important in designing electronic devices and
household gadgets. Many of the latest devices are created from solid-state materials, It has lightness,
durability, and flexible.
 CHAPTER 5: THE CHEMISTRY OF CARBON AND LIFE
DEFINITION OF TERMS
BIOMOLECULES – A molecule that is
produced by a living organism.
MONOMERS (AMINO ACIDS) – A molecule
that can be bonded to other identical molecules
to form a polymer. It has the ability to
chemically bond with other molecules in a long
chain
POLYMERS (PROTEIN) – A substance made
of long, repeating chains of unspecified number
of monomers.
NUCLEOTIDES - repeating units of monomers
MACROMOLECULES – A molecule containing
a very large number of atoms, such as a
protein, nucleic acid, commonly composed of
the polymerization of monomers.
MONO – one
SACCHARIDE - sugar
4 GROUPS OF BIOMELECULES:
CARBOHYDRATES
CARBOHYDRATES – Any of a large group of
organic compounds occurring in foods and
living tissues and including sugar, starch and
cellulose (carbon, hydrogen and oxygen)
FUNCTION: To provide energy, store energy,
build macromolecules and spare protein and
fat for other uses.
TYPES:
SIMPLES CARBOHYDRATES (it has single
bond structure)
MONOSACCHARIDE – It is a simplest form of
carbohydrates, and includes single sugars that
are easily absorbed into the bloodstream.
(Honey & fruit juices)
COMPLEX CARBOHYDRATES (take longer
to digest)
DISACCHARIDE – It is a group of
carbohydrates that are naturally occurring
sugars. They are chemically composed of two
sugars linked together and need certain
enzymes to break them up to release the
sugars. (Maltose, sucrose, & lactose)
POLYSACCHARIDE – It is a complex
carbohydrate. They are made up of many
simple sugars linked together. (Starch &
grains)
PROTEIN DO THE CHEMISTRY IN THE
CELL
PROTEINS – It is a naturally occurring,
extremely complex substance that consist of
amino acid residues joined by peptide bonds
and the most abundant organic molecules of
the living system. (50%)
FUNCTION: Act as digestive enzyme that
helps in catabolizing nutrients, transporting and
carry substance in the blood, for construction of
different structure
PHASES:
PRIMARY - amino acids are bound together
SECONDARY - hydrogen bonding of the
peptide backbone (repeating pattern)
TERTIARY - three-dimensional folding pattern
of a protein due to side chain interactions
QUARTERNARY - protein consisting of more
than one amino acid chain
LIPIDS FUNCTION AS MEMBRANE
LIPIDS – Any of a class of organic compound
that are fatty acids (fats, oils, waxes,
phospholipids) or composed of Carbon,
Hydrogen and Nitrogen and are insoluble in
water but soluble in organic solvents.
FUNCTION: Long term storage of energy
sources; act as a protective layer against water
and give insulation.
TYPES:
TRIGLYCERIDES - a type of fat found in the
blood.
PHOSPHOLIPID - a type of lipid molecule that
is the main component of the cell membrane.
STEROIDS – do not contain fatty acids but are
included in lipids (main feature is the ring
system)
FATS:
SATURATED FATS – have the greatest
number of hydrogen atoms possible and no
double bonds (solid at room temperature)
UNSATURATED FATS – chemical structure
contains one or more double bonds (liquid at
room temperature)
NUCLEIC ACIDS CONTAIN GENETIC INFORMATION
NUCLEIC ACID – It is naturally occurring chemical compounds that serve as the primary information-
carrying molecules in cells. It includes deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acids (RNA).
FUNCTION: DNA - stores information for hereditary characteristics, while RNA - transfers
information.
 CHAPTER 6: RATE OF REACTION

DEFINITION OF TERMS
CHEMICAL REACTION - a process in which one or more substances, the reactants, are converted
to one or more different substances, the products. Substances are either chemical elements or
compounds.
REACTANTS - are converted to one or more different substances, the products. Substances are
either chemical elements or compounds. A chemical reaction rearranges the constituent atoms of the
reactants to create different substances as products.
PARTICLE - a small localized object to which can be ascribed several physical or chemical properties
such as volume, density or mass.
CATALYST - any substance that increases the rate of a reaction without itself being consumed.
ENZYMES - naturally occurring catalysts responsible for many essential biochemical reactions.
PRESSURE - perpendicular force per unit area, or the stress at a point within a confined fluid.
VOLUME - the amount of a substance is determined by measuring the volume that it occupies.
TEMPERATURE -a physical quantity that expresses hot and cold. It is the manifestation of thermal
energy, present in all matter, which is the source of the occurrence of heat, a flow of energy, when a
body is in contact with another that is colder or hotter.

EFFECT OF CONCENTRATION
If there is a higher concentration of one or more of the reactants, there is a greater chance that
collisions will occur among particles of the reactants. More collisions mean a faster reaction rate.
For gases, pressure and volume plays a significant role in changing their concentration. Increasing
the pressure of a gas decreases the volume where the gas particle can freely move.

EFFECT OF PARTICLE SIZE

Reactant particles with the same phase (liquid-liquid or gas-gas) may easily mix with each other. This
gives the particles of maximum opportunity to collide and react. The case is different when one of the
reactants is a solid; the reaction can only take place on the surface of the solid.

EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE
When the reaction temperature goes up, the reaction rate increases as well. The average kinetic
energy of a particle increases with rising temperature, which means that at higher temperatures,
particles tend to move faster

EFFECT OF A CATALYST.
One of the important factors that affect the rate of reaction is the presence of a catalyst. Catalysts are
substances that hasten reaction without themselves being consumed in a reaction. They do so by
lowering the activation energy that a reaction must overcome in order to achieve successful collisions
and progress. In biological systems, catalysts are termed enzymes.