160) Chemistry Revised English Printable

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Chemistry
There are total 15 Topics in this chapter.
➢ Matter & its Nature ➢ Chemical Reactions &

➢ Equations
➢ Structure of an Atom
➢ Acids, Base & Salts ➢ Chemical Bonding
➢ pH Scale ➢ Atmospheric Pollution
➢ Chemistry in everyday Life

➢ Organic Chemistry
➢ Common Elements &
Compounds
➢ Metals & Non- Metals
➢
➢ Polymerization
➢ Important PYQs
➢
➢ Periodic Table
➢ Recent PYQs
Matter
Anything that has mass and takes up space is referred to as matter. hydrogen and oxygen, sugar
and sand, air and water, etc. Small, minuscule particles make up matter. Due to the space
between them, matter particles are attracted to one another.
States of Matter
• Matter can be classified as solid, liquid or gas on the basis of interparticle forces and the
arrangement of particles.
• These three forms of matter are interconvertible by increasing or decreasing pressure and
temperature. For example, ice can be converted from solid to a liquid by increasing the
temperature.
Property Solid Liquid Gas
Shape and volume Fixed shape and volume No fixed shape but has Neither definite shape
volume nor volume
Energy Lowest Medium Highest
Compressibility Difficult Nearly difficult Easy
Arrangement of molecules Regular and closely Random and little Random and more
arranged sparsely arranged sparsely arranged
Fluidity Cannot flow Flows from higher to Flows in all directions

lower level
Movement Negligible Depends on interparticle Free, constant and

attraction random
Interparticle space Very less More Large
Interparticle attraction Maximum Medium Minimum
Density Maximum Medium Minimum
Rate of diffusion Negligible It depends on Maximum

interparticle attraction.
Physical Nature of Matter
• A physical property is an aspect of matter that can be observed or measured without
changing its nature or composition.
• It is independent of the amount of matter present.
• Physical properties include appearance, colour, odour, density, texture, melting point,
boiling point, solubility, etc.
Characteristics of Particles of Matter

➢ Matter: Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space.
• Everything that we can touch, see, hear, taste and also smell is matter.
• It is made up of really tiny particles which cannot be seen through the eye.
Intensive & Extensive properties of matter

Intensive properties of matter- Intensive properties are those that are independent of the amount of
matter present. Pressure and temperature, for example, are intensive properties.
Extensive property of matter- A property that is dependent on the matter in a sample is known as an
extensive property. Extensive properties include mass and volume.
Physical and Chemical Properties of Matter

1. Particles of matter have spaces between them
• This characteristic is one of the concepts behind the solubility of a substance in other
substances. For example, on dissolving sugar in water, there is no rise in the water level
because the particles of sugar get into the interparticle spaces between the water particles.
2. Particles of matter are always in motion
• Particles of matter show continuous random movements due to the kinetic energy they
possess.
• A rise in temperature increases the kinetic energy of the particles, making them move more
vigorously.
3. Particles of matter attract each other
In every substance, there is an interparticle force of attraction acting between the particles. To
break a substance, we need to overcome this force. The strength of the force differs from one
substance to another.
Can Matter Change Its State?
Effect of Change of Temperature on the State of Matter
On increasing the temperature, the kinetic energy of the particles of the matter increases, and they
begin to vibrate with higher energy. Therefore, the interparticle force of attraction between the
particles reduces, and particles get detached from their position and begin to move freely.
• As a result, the state of matter begins to change.

• Solids undergo a phase change to form liquids.
• Similarly, liquids also undergo a phase change to form gases.
Effect of Change in Pressure on the State of Matter

By applying pressure, the interparticle spaces between particles of matter decrease. Thus, by
applying pressure and reducing temperature, we can convert a solid to liquid and a liquid to gas.
Diffusion
When the particles of matter intermix on their own with each other, the phenomenon is called
diffusion. For example, spreading of ink in water.
• During diffusion, the particles occupy the interparticle spaces.

• The rate of diffusion increases with an increase in temperature due to increase in the kinetic
energy of the particles.
•
Boiling Point
The boiling point of a liquid is defined as the temperature at which the vapour pressure of the
liquid is equal to the atmospheric pressure.
The boiling point for any material is the temperature point at which the material transforms into the
gas phase in the liquid phase. This happens at 100 degrees centigrade for water. The Celsius
scale was in fact created on the basis of the ice/water melting point and the liquid water/vapor
boiling point.
Melting Point
The melting point of a solid is defined as the temperature at which solid melts to become liquid at
the atmospheric pressure.
At the melting point, these two phases, i.e., solid and liquid, are in equilibrium, i.e., at this point,
both solid state and liquid state exist simultaneously.
Sublimation
The transition of a substance directly from its solid phase to gaseous phase without changing into
the liquid phase (or vice versa) is called sublimation.
Sublimation – Solid to Gas Phase Transformation
Latent Heat of Fusion
It is the amount of heat energy that is required to change 1 kg of a solid into liquid at atmospheric
pressure at its melting point.
Latent Heat of Vaporisation

It is the amount of heat energy that is required to change 1 kg of a liquid into gas at atmospheric
pressure at its boiling point.
Fusion
When two atoms collide to create a heavier atom, such as when two hydrogen atoms combine to
create one helium atom, this process is known as fusion. This process generates enormous
amounts of energy, many times more than fission, and powers the sun. Furthermore, it doesn’t
generate radioactive fission products.
The melting point at which ice, a solid, turns to water, a liquid, is 32°F (0°C).
Evaporation
The phenomenon by which molecules in liquid state undergo a spontaneous transition to the
gaseous phase at any temperature below its boiling point is called evaporation.
• For example, the gradual drying of damp clothes is caused by the evaporation of water to
water vapour.
Factors Affecting Evaporation
• Temperature: On increasing the temperature the rate of evaporation also increases. At higher
temperature, the molecules are moving faster: therefore, it is more likely for a molecule to have
enough energy to break away from the liquid to become a gas.The rate of evaporation increases
with an increase in temperature.
• Surface area: As the surface area increases, the rate of evaporation also increases. The more area is
exposed to air, allowing water molecules to acquire more heat energy from the surroundings. The
rate of evaporation increases with an increase in surface area.
• Humidity: Humidity and rate of evaporation are in inverse relation to each other. As the humidity
decreases, the rate of evaporation increases. The rate of evaporation decreases with an increase in
humidity.
• Wind speed: Wind speed and rate of evaporation are directly proportional to each other. The rate
of evaporation increases with an increase in wind speed.
•
Cooling Due to Evaporation

During evaporation, the particles of a liquid absorb energy from the surroundings to overcome the
inter-particle forces of attraction and undergo phase change. The absorption of heat from the
surrounding makes the surroundings cool.For example, sweating cools down our body.
Applications of Evaporative Cooling

1) On sunny days water from ponds and lakes dry faster because of the excess heat coming from
the sun making the water evaporate at a faster rate.
2) Cooling of water in earthen pot/ matka: water cools as it evaporates from the surface of the
earthen pot
3) Drying up of water bodies like lakes and ponds in our surroundings: in hot summer months
water gets evaporated and gets refilled only after it rains
4) Drying clothes under the sun: water is removed from the clothes as water droplets get
evaporated due to heat of the sun
We do know that matter is made up of particles which are arranged in a certain way. Gases
particles are well separated and can freely move about, solids, on the other hand, have particles
that are tightly packed, usually with no scope to move around.
Pure Substances
• Pure substances are elements or compounds.
• They are made up of only one kind of entity.
• They cannot be broken down into simpler entities by chemical or physical methods.
• They have a fixed composition.
• Example: Diamond, carbon dioxide.
• A substance that only contains one type or class of atom is said to be an element. Since it
cannot be altered through physical or chemical means to break down or create new
substances, an element is a pure material. The majority of elements are metals, nonmetals,
or metalloids.
• Pure substances typically only include one type of atom or molecule and are homogeneous
in nature.
• Most of the time, the composition of these chemicals is constant or uniform.
• The boiling and melting points of the substances are constant.
• In a chemical reaction, a pure substance often takes part to produce predictable results.
➢ Compounds: Compounds are the substances consisting of two or more different

types of elements in a fixed ratio of its atoms.
Difference between Mixtures and Compounds
Compound Mixture
Compounds are substances which can be formed by Mixtures are substances that are formed by
chemically combining two or more elements. physically mixing two or more substances.
Compounds fall under pure substances. Mixtures can be categorized as impure

substances.
The chemical composition of compounds is always A mixture can have a variable composition of
fixed. the substances forming it.
Compounds are always homogeneous in nature Mixtures can either be homogeneous or

heterogeneous in nature.
A new substance is formed after the constituents are No new substances are formed in mixtures and
chemically combined. So, a compound has different their properties are dependent on the properties
properties from its constituents. of their respective constituents.
Example of compounds includes water (H2O), Hydrogen Peroxide (H2O2), etc. You can see water’s
chemical formula, it says it has 2 atoms of Hydrogen combined with 1 atom of oxygen and in
hydrogen peroxide, it has 2 atoms of hydrogen and two atoms of oxygen.
➢ Elements
• Elements are species of atoms which have the same number of protons in their atomic
nuclei.
• Elements are represented by symbols e.g.Hydrogen (H), Boron (B), Carbon (C), Silicon (Si)
etc.
Metals
• Metal is a solid material which is typically hard, shiny, malleable, fusible, and ductile, with
good electrical and thermal conductivity.
• Examples: Aluminium, Copper, Iron, Tin, Gold
Nonmetals
• Non-metals are brittle and are not malleable or ductile.
• They are poor conductors of heat and electricity.
• Examples: Carbon, Boron etc.
Metalloids
• Metalloids exhibit some properties of metals as well as of non-metals.
• Examples: Boron, silicon, germanium, arsenic, antimony, and tellurium
Mixtures
A mixture in chemistry is a substance made up of two or more unrelated chemical components. A
mixture is a physical combination of two or more distinct substances that can take the form of
solutions, suspensions, or colloids.
• Crude oil: A mixture of organic compounds (mainly hydrocarbons)

• Seawater: A mixture of various salt and water.
Mixtures are formed by just mixing two or more pure substances (components) such that each
substance retains its own chemical identity.
Types of Mixtures:
Heterogeneous and homogeneous mixtures are the two types of mixtures. While homogeneous
mixtures seem consistent throughout, heterogeneous mixtures have clearly discernible
components. A solution, which can be a solid, liquid, or gas, is the most typical kind of
homogenous mixture.
Homogeneous Mixture: A mixture which has a uniform composition throughout is

called a homogeneous mixture or solution.
• Homogeneous mixture can be separated by the processes of evaporation, chromatography, and
distillation.
• The best example of a homogeneous mixture is a solution of sugar and water. Both are in a liquid
phase and cannot be separated physically.
• Examples: sugar in water, salt in water.
2. Heterogeneous Mixture:
• A mixture which contains physically distinct parts and has a non-uniform composition is called
a heterogeneous mixture.
• The individual components of mixture can be separated via handpicking, filtration, sedimentation,
distillation, magnetic separation, threshing, winnowing, and separator funnels, etc.
• Examples: Mixture of salt and iron filings, sand and sugar.
• The mixing of two solid substances results in a heterogeneous mixture like sand water and vegetables
such as salad etc.
➢Alloys: Alloys are homogeneous mixtures of metals or a mixture of a metal and another
element that cannot be separated into their components by physical methods.
Examples:
• Steel – a combination of iron (metal) and carbon (non-metal).

• Bronze – a combination of copper (metal) and tin (metal).
• Brass – a mixture of copper (metal) and zinc (metal).
Physical vs Chemical Changes
The nature of the substance, the particles that make up it, and the quantity of particles all stay
unaltered after a physical change. Chemical changes result in new compounds with different
properties from the original ones, as well as new particles and maybe altered particle numbers.
Physical and Chemical Changes

• A substance is said to undergo a physical change when only the physical properties, such
as the shape, size, colour or state of the substance, change. No new substance is formed.
• Example: Melting of ice, boiling water.
• A substance is said to undergo a chemical change when a new substance with completely
new properties (physical and chemical) is formed.
• Example: Burning of wood or paper, souring of milk.
Solutions
Solute-
A substance that is dissolved in a solution is called a solute.In fluid solutions, the amount of
solvent present is greater than the amount of solute. Two of the most prevalent solutes in our daily
lives are salt and water. Salt is a solute because it dissolves in water.
Examples of solutes include sugar, dissolved carbon dioxide, oxygen, water vapour, carbon
dioxide, argon, etc.
Solvent -
The solvent is the component in the solution that is present in the largest amount and determines
the physicochemical form of the substance as either solid, liquid or gas. Solvents are usually but
not necessarily always liquids and can also be gases or solids.”
Examples of the solvent include water, ethanol, methanol, acetone, tetrachloroethylene, toluene,
methyl acetate, and ethyl acetate
Solutions and Their Properties

Anything dissolved in a solution is referred to as a solute. In a fluid solution, the amount of solvent
always outweighs the amount of solute. Two of the most prevalent solutes in our daily lives are
salt and water. Salt is a solute because it dissolves in water.
Examples of solutes include sugar, dissolved carbon dioxide, oxygen, water vapour, carbon
dioxide, argon, etc.
Solvent refers to the component of a solution that is most prevalent. It is the fluid in which the
solute has been dissolved. Typically, a solvent is a liquid. The Latin term solv, which means “to
loosen or untie,” is the source of the English word “solvent.”
Examples of the solvent include water, ethanol, methanol, acetone, tetrachloroethylene, toluene,
methyl acetate, and ethyl acetate.
• A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances.

Properties
• Its particles are too tiny and have a diameter of less than 1 nm.
• The particles are not visible to the naked eyes.
• Particles do not scatter a beam of light passing through them and hence do not show the
Tyndall effect.
• The solute particles never settle down on keeping undisturbed.
• The components of a solution cannot be separated using filtration.
Concentration of Solutions
The amount of solute that has dissolved in a specific amount of solvent or solution is measured
as solution concentration. A concentrated solution is one that has a significant amount of
dissolved solute in it. A diluted solution is one that has a small amount of dissolved solute in it.
Solubility
Unsaturated solutions, on the other hand, are those that contain less solute than the maximum
that can be dissolved. A saturated solution is one that contains the maximum quantity of solute
that can be dissolved. The amount of a solute that dissolves in a solvent is known as its solubility.
The majority of solutes become more soluble when the solvent’s temperature rises.
• Solubility is the property showing the ability of a given substance, which is the solute, to
dissolve in a solvent.
• It is measured in terms of the maximum amount of solute dissolved in a solvent at
equilibrium.
• The resulting solution is called a saturated solution.
• Factors Affecting Solubility:
• Temperature – Solubility increases with temperature. The situation is different for gases.
With the increase in temperature, they became less soluble in each other and in water but
more soluble in organic solvents.
• Pressure – For the majority of solid and liquid solutes, pressure does not affect solubility.
The solubility of gas is directly proportional to the pressure of this gas.
Types of Solutions based on the Concentration of the Solution

There are 2 main types of solutions based on the definition. A dilute Solution is a solution
that contains a small amount of solute. A concentrated Solution is a solution that contains
a lot of solutes.
Three types of solutions exist based on the concentration of the solution:
1. Dilute- It is a solution that contains a small amount of solute.
2. Concentrated- it is a solution that contains a lot of solutes.
3. Saturated solution- A saturated solutions a solution that has dissolved as much solute
as it is capable of dissolving. In a saturated solution, no more solute can be dissolving
solution; no more solute can be dissolved at a given temperature. We can make
saturated solution by keep on dissolving solute until no more solute can be dissolved.
Ways of Representing the Concentration of a Solution

The concentration of a solution can be represented in many ways
(i) Mass by the mass percentage of a solution = (Mass of solute / Mass of solution) × 100
(ii) Mass by volume percentage of a solution = (Mass of solute/ volume of solution)×100
For example, if a solution of NaCl in water is said to be 10 % by volume that means a 100 ml
solution will contain 10 ml NaCl.
Suspensions
Suspension and Its Properties
A suspension is a heterogeneous mixture in which the solute particles do not dissolve but remain
suspended throughout the bulk of the medium.
• The solute particles settle down when a suspension is left undisturbed.

• They can be separated from the mixture by filtration.
• A suspension is a heterogeneous mixture.
• The size of solute particles in a suspension is quite large. It is larger than 100 mm in
diameter.
• The particles of asuspension can be seen easily.
• The particles of a suspension do not pass through a filter paper. So a suspension can be
separated by filtration.
Colloids
Types of Mixtures based on Particle Size
Classified into:
• Solution
• Suspension.
• Colloidal solution.
Colloidal Solutions: A colloidal solution is a mixture in which the substances are

regularly suspended in a fluid.
Properties of colloids and their variation are a well-known area ever since the primitive age. The
best example to prove their familiarity with us is that we know from very early times that
coagulation of milk results in the formation of curd.
• Classified into: Foam, Emulsion, Sol
➢ Tyndall Effect: Tyndall effect is the scattering of light by particles in a colloid or else
particles in a very fine suspension.
• E.g.It can be observed when sunlight passes through the canopy of a dense forest.
➢ Dispersed Phase: The solute-like component of the dispersed particles in a colloid

form the dispersed phase.
➢ Dispersion Medium: The component in which the dispersed phase is suspended is

known as the dispersing medium.
➢ Aerosol: A colloidal solution with dispersed phase solid/liquid and dispersing medium
gas is called Aerosol. e.g. clouds
➢ Foam:A colloidal solution with dispersed phase gas and dispersing medium solid/liquid
is called Foam. e.g.Shaving cream.
➢ Sols:A colloidal solution with dispersed phase solid and dispersing medium liquid is
called Sol. e.g. Milk of magnesia, mud.
Gels and Emulsions

• A colloidal solution with dispersed phase liquid and dispersing medium solid is called Gel.
• A colloidal solution with dispersed phase liquid and dispersing medium liquid is
called Emulsion.
Emulsion and gel are two distinct chemical compounds. A gel is a semisolid substance, but an
emulsion is a liquid, which is the main distinction between the two. Nevertheless, depending on
their intended use, some emulsions can exist in a semisolid condition. Fruit jellies, a gelatinous
substance, creams, etc.
➢ Evaporation:The process of conversion of water into water vapour is known

as evaporation.
• Examples:
▪ Clothes drying in the sun.
▪ Tea and other hot liquids are cooled down.
▪ Dry Floors
▪ Ice cubes melting
• It can be used to separate the volatile component (solvent) from its non-volatile solute.
Introduction to Separation
Separation of Components of a Mixture
Most of the time the substances that we see around us are not in their pure form. They are
basically a mixture of two or more substances. Interestingly, mixtures tend to also come in
different forms. Therefore, there are several types of separation techniques that are used in
segregating a mixture of substances. As for the need for separation, it is usually done to
remove all the unwanted materials and obtain useful components.
Some of the common methods of separating substances or mixtures are:

Handpicking, Threshing, Winnowing, Sieving, Evaporation, Distillation, Filtration or
Sedimentation, Separating Funnel, Magnetic Separation.
Separation of a Mixture of Two Immiscible Liquids

The separation of a mixture of two immiscible liquids is done by using a separating funnel.
Applications:
-To separate a mixture of oil and water,
-In the extraction of iron from its ore,
-Principle- Immiscible liquids break out into layers according to their densities, which is the
basic idea behind the separation of immiscible liquids using a separating funnel.
Sublimation:
Sublimation is the transition of a substance from solid phase to gaseous phase without
changing into liquid phase.
• Example: Naphthalene balls undergo sublimation at home.
Centrifugation
• Centrifugation uses centrifugal force for the separation of 2 liquids of different Densities or
a liquid from a solid in a mixture.
• Principle of Centrifugation- Here, a denser component of the mixture migrates away from
the axis, and a lighter component migrates towards the axis.
Applications
• Used for blood and urine tests in diagnostic facilities.
• Used to separate butter from cream in dairies and at home.
• Utilised in washing machines to extract water from drenched clothing.
Chromatography
• Chromatography is used to separate the different components in a liquid mixture.
• It is based on the different properties of compounds in two phases: stationary and mobile
phase.
Applications
• The technique of chromatography is extensively employed in the pharmaceutical industry
in order to analyze and identify the presence of any trace amounts of chemicals and elements
in a given sample.
• In the food industry, the technique of chromatography plays a vital role in the
determination of the shelf life of food substances by helping in the analysis of the point at
which food spoils.
• In the field of molecular biology, the study of proteomics and metabolomics often involves
the use of various hyphenated chromatographic techniques (the most notable of which being
EC-LC-MS).
Distillation
Distillation is a method for separating the component substances from a liquid mixture by selective
evaporation and condensation.
Used in: Production of gasoline, distilled water, xylene, alcohol, paraffin, kerosene etc.
Fractional Distillation:
Fractional Distillation is the separation of a mixture into its component parts or fractions by their Boiling
points.
• This is the process of separation of chemical compounds by their boiling point.
• The mixture is heated to a temperature at which one or more fractions will vaporize.
Crystallization
• Crystallisation is a separation technique in which solids are separated from a solution.
• In this technique, the solvent molecules start evaporating, leaving behind the solutes when the solution is
heated in an open container.
Applications of Crystallisation
1) Purification of seawater
2) Separation of alum crystals from impure samples
3) In the pharmaceutical industry, crystallization is used as a separation and purification process for the
synthesis and isolation of co-crystals, pure active pharmaceutical ingredients (API), controlled release
pulmonary drug delivery, and separation of chiral isomers.
Crystallization better than Evaporation

1) Crystallisation is better than evaporation because during Evaporation. Some solids decompose or some,
like sugar, may get charred on heating to dryness. Some impurities may remain dissolved in the solution
even after filtration which on evaporation contaminates the solid.
2) Crystallization is known to be more effective than evaporation since it also removes the soluble
impurities.
3) Crystallization is an essential separatory technique as it allows us to separate compounds of the highest
purity.
Separation of Air into Its Components

➢ Process of Obtaining Different Gases from the Air
Air is a homogeneous mixture and can be separated into its components by fractional distillation.
Mixtures are substances made up of two or more different kinds of material. Homogeneous and
heterogeneous mixtures are the two types of mixtures. There is no particle level homogeneity and
the components in a heterogeneous mixture are not dispersed uniformly. As a result, we may
simply divide a heterogeneous mixture into its various components.
A few popular separation methods for the heterogeneous mixture include sieving, filtration, hand-
picking, etc. We must employ specialised separation procedures when dealing with homogeneous
mixtures, as well as occasionally heterogeneous mixtures. Special separation techniques include
evaporation, centrifugation, chromatography, sublimation, separating funnels, etc.
➢ Crystallization
• Crystallisation is a separation technique in which solids are separated from a solution.
• In this technique, the solvent molecules start evaporating, leaving behind the solutes when
the solution is heated in an open container.
Crystallisation is better than evaporation because during Evaporation. Some solids decompose or
some, like sugar, may get charred on heating to dryness. Some impurities may remain dissolved in
the solution even after filtration which on evaporation contaminates the solid.
Separation of substances by crystallization technique
➢ Water Purification
Applications of Crystallisation
Purification of seawater, separation of alum crystals from impure samples etc
Atoms and molecules are responsible for forming tiny sand particles, gargantuan black holes and everything
in between. The atom is the most fundamental unit of matter, making up everything that we see around us. It
is extremely small, measuring in at less than 0.1 to 0.5 nanometers.
Combination
Chemical Reactions
• In a chemical reaction, two or more molecules interact to produce new compounds; they are called
reactants, whereas the newly formed compounds are called products.
• In a chemical reaction, a chemical change must occur, which is generally observed with physical
changes like precipitation, heat production, colour change, etc.
Law of Conservation of Mass

• According to the law of conservation of mass, matter can neither be created nor destroyed in a
chemical reaction. It remains conserved.
• The mass of reactants will be equal to the mass of products.
Law of Constant Proportions

-The law of constant proportions states that chemical compounds are made up of elements that are
present in a fixed ratio by mass.
-This implies that any pure sample of a compound, no matter the source, will always consist of the same
elements that are present in the same ratio by mass. For example, pure water will always contain
hydrogen and oxygen in a fixed mass ratio (a gram of water consists of approximately 0.11 grams of
hydrogen and 0.88 grams of oxygen, the ratio is 1:8).
-The law of constant proportions is often referred to as Proust’s law or as the law of definite proportions.
-The elements are present in chemical compounds in a predetermined mass ratio. The “Law of Constant
Proportions” is this. This “Law of Constant Proportions” is also known as “Proust’s law” or the “law of
defined proportions.” For instance, the oxygen and hydrogen content in pure water is always 1:8.
➢ Atoms: An atom is the defining structure of an element, which cannot be broken by any
chemical means.
The atomic symbol has three parts:-
• The symbol X: the usual element symbol

• The atomic number A: equal to the number of protons
• The mass number Z: equal to the total number of protons and neutrons in an element.
➢ Atomic Radius: The distance between an atom’s nucleus and outer electron shell.
The atomic radius is calculated by measuring the distance between the nuclei of two
identical atoms bonded together. Half this distance is the atomic radius.
Atomic Mass and Atomic Mass Unit

• Atomic mass is the total of the masses of the electrons, neutrons, and protons in an atom, or in a
group of atoms, the average mass.
• The mass of an atomic particle is called the atomic mass.
• This is commonly expressed as per the international agreement in terms of a unified atomic mass
unit (AMU).
• It can be best defined as 1/12 of the mass of a carbon-12 atom in its ground state.
➢ Molecular mass: Molecular mass of an element is defined as the sum of the masses of the
elements present in the molecule.
• Molecular mass is obtained by multiplying the atomic mass of an element by the number of
atoms in the molecule and then adding the masses of all the elements in the molecule.
➢ Molecule: The smallest identifiable unit into which a pure substance may be divided
while retaining its composition and chemical properties is a molecule, which is a
collection of two or more atoms.
Molecules of Elements
A molecule is a collection of two or more chemically bound atoms, whether they are from the same element
or another.
For example, when two hydrogen (H2) atoms and one oxygen (O2) atom interact, one water molecule is
created.
Molecules of Compounds
Salts and molecular compounds are the two categories into which compounds can be divided. Covalent
bonds hold the atoms together in molecular molecules. Ionic bonds hold it together in salts. Every compound
is composed of one of these two types of bonds.
Actually, a compound is a kind of molecule. The atoms that join together must be distinct from one another
for the substance to qualify as a compound. O2, for instance, is a molecule, not a compound, due to its
atomic connection with another oxygen atom. NaCl, however, is a compound since it is made up of two
distinct atoms that are chemically bound together.
Mole Concept & Avogadro Number

• In a substance, the amount of entities present. For e.g. atoms, molecules, and ions are defined as a
mole. A mole of any substance is 6.022×1023 molecules.
• The Mole concept is one of the most convenient ways of expressing the amount of reactants and
products in the reaction.
The value of Avogadro’s number is approximately 6.022×1023. The definition of Avogadro’s number is that
it tells us the number of particles in 1 mole (or mol) of a substance. These particles could be electrons or
molecules, or atoms.
➢ Molar Mass:A substance is something which has mass and occupies space. The molar
mass/molecular weight is actually the sum of the total mass in grams of the atoms present to make up
a molecule per mole. The unit of molar mass is grams/mole.
Molecules and Atomicity

A molecule is defined as the smallest unit of a compound that contains the chemical properties of the
compound.
• The atomicity of an element is the number of atoms in one molecule of the element.
• For e.g., Hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, chlorine, iodine, and bromine all have two atoms in each of
their molecules. So, the atomicity of hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, chlorine, iodine, and bromine is
two each.
Structure of an Atom
• Atom is made of three particles; electron, proton and neutron.
• The centre of the atom is called the nucleus. The nucleus of an atom contains the whole mass of an
atom.
• Electrons in an atom are arranged in shells/orbitals.
➢ Valency: Valence electrons are those electrons which are present in the outermost orbit of the
atom.
• The capacity of an atom to lose, gain or share valence electrons in order to complete its octet
determines the valency of the atom.
Writing Chemical Formulae

➢ Compounds
• When two or more elements chemically combine in a fixed ratio by mass, the obtained product is
known as a compound.
• Compounds are substances consisting of two or more different types of elements in a fixed ratio of
its atoms.
➢ Ions
• An ion is defined as an atom or molecule which has gained or lost one or more of its valence
electrons, giving it a net positive or negative charge.
• A negatively charged particle is called an anion, and a positively charged particle is called a cation
➢ Atoms: Atoms are the building blocks of matter. It is the smallest unit of matter that is
composed of three sub-atomic particles: the proton, the neutron and the electron.
Electrons
1) Electrons are negatively charged particles.
2) The mass of the electron is 1/2000 times lesser than the mass of proton and neutron. Therefore, the
electrons do not contribute to the mass of the atom.
3) An electron has an electric charge of -1.602 × 10^-19 coulombs, which is equal and opposite to the
charge of a proton.
4) Electrons are subatomic particles found outside the nucleus, unlike protons and neutrons, which are
present inside the nucleus.
5) According to the Bohr atom model, electrons are continuously moving around the nucleus in orbits
or shells.
6) The invariant mass of an electron is approximately 9.109×10^−31 kilograms.
7) Electrons display both particle properties and wave properties.
8) According to the principle of quantum mechanics, the position and momentum of the electrons
cannot be determined simultaneously.
Protons
-Proton is a positively charged particle and has the following physical properties:
-Mass of Proton – The mass of a proton is equal to that of the hydrogen atom. A hydrogen atom consists of
one electron and one proton. As the mass of an electron is considered to be negligible therefore it can be
said that the mass of a hydrogen atom is equal to the mass of a proton. The mass of a proton is 1840 times
the mass of an electron.
Mass of proton = 1.676 × 10^-27 kg = 1.676 × 10^-24 g = 1.6726219 × 10^-27 kg
-Charge of Proton – The charge of a proton is equal to and opposite to that of an electron. Thus, it has a
unit positive charge.
Charge on a proton = + 1.602 × 10^-19 coulombs
Neutrons
-There are electrically neutral particles. The mass of the neutron is 1.675 x 10^−27 kg which is slightly
greater than the mass of a proton.
-The mass of a neutron is approximately equal to 1.008 atomic mass units.
-Since neutrons have no charge, their mass cannot be directly determined by mass spectrometry
techniques.
-They are highly penetrating but not much when compared to cosmic rays.
-The total sum of the neutrons and protons present in an atom
accounts for the approximate mass of an atom in a.m.u (atomic mass
unit).
-The neutron is not an elementary particle, as it has a magnetic field.
Valency:
-The electrons present in the outermost shell of an atom are known as the valence electrons.
- The capacity of an atom to lose, gain or share valence electrons in order to complete its octet determines
the valency of the atom.
- The combining capacity of the atoms or their tendency to react and form molecules with atoms of the
same or different elements is known as the valency of the atom.
- Atoms of elements, having a completely filled outermost shell, show little chemical activity.
• Their combining capacity or valency is zero.
• For example, we know that the number of electrons in the outermost shell of hydrogen
is 1, and in magnesium, it is 2.
• Therefore, the valency of hydrogen is 1 as it can easily lose 1 electron and become stable.
• On the other hand, that of magnesium is 2 as it can lose 2 electrons easily and also attain stability.
Isotopes -
Isotopes are defined as the atoms of the same element, having the same atomic number
( number of protons ) but different mass numbers ( number of protons+neutrons )
For e.g. Hydrogen
Isobars
Atoms of different elements with different atomic numbers, which have the same mass
number,
are known as isobars.
For example, Calcium and Argon: both have the same mass number – 40.
Cathode Ray Experiment

• J. J. Thomson discovered the existence of electrons.
• He did this using a cathode ray tube, which is a vacuum-sealed tube with a cathode and anode on one
end that created a beam of electrons travelling towards the other end of the tube.
• The air inside the chamber is subjected to high voltage, and electricity flows through the air
from the negative electrode to the positive electrode.
• The characteristics of cathode rays (electrons) do not depend upon the material of electrodes and the
nature of the gas present in the cathode ray tube.
• The experiment showed that the atom was not a simple, indivisible particle and contained at least one
subatomic particle – the electron.
Thomson’s Model of an Atom

1) According to Thomson,
(i) An atom consists of a positively charged sphere and the electrons are embedded in it.
(ii) The negative and positive charges are equal in magnitude. So, the atom as a whole is electrically
neutral.
2) The first model of an atom to be put forward and taken into consideration.
3) He proposed a model of the atom be similar to that of a Christmas pudding/watermelon.
i) The red edible part of the watermelon is compared with the positive charge in the atom.
ii) The black seeds in the watermelon are compared with the electrons which are embedded on it.
Radioactivity
• Radioactivity is the term for the process by which an unstable nucleus of an atom loses energy by
giving out particles.
• It does so by giving out particles such as alpha and beta particles.
• This process is spontaneous.
• An atom is unstable if the nucleus has an imbalance, meaning a difference in the protons and
neutrons.
Rutherford Model
Rutherford’s Experiment and Observations
In this experiment, fast-moving alpha (α)-particles were made to fall on a thin gold foil.
His observations were:
• A major fraction of the α-particles bombarded towards the gold sheet passed through it
without any deflection, and hence most of the space in an atom is empty.
• Some of the α-particles were deflected by the gold sheet by very small angles, and hence
the positive charge in an atom is not uniformly distributed.
• The positive charge in an atom is concentrated in a very small volume.
• Very few of the α-particles were deflected back; that is, only a few α-particles had nearly
180 degree angle of deflection. So the volume occupied by the positively charged particles
in an atom is very small as compared to the total volume of an atom.
Rutherford’s Model of an Atom

Rutherford concluded the model of the atom from the α-particle scattering experiment as
follows:
(i) There is a positively charged centre in an atom called the nucleus. Nearly all the mass of
an atom resides in the nucleus.
(ii) The electrons revolve around the nucleus in well-defined orbits.
(iii) The size of the nucleus is very small compared to the size of the atom.
Drawbacks of Rutherford’s Model
• He explained that the electrons in an atom revolve around the nucleus in well-defined
orbits. Particles in a circular orbit would experience acceleration.
• Thus, the revolving electron would lose energy and finally fall into the nucleus.
Drawbacks of Rutherford’s Model
• But this cannot take place as the atom would be unstable, and the matter would not exist
in the form we know.
• The Millikan’s Oil Drop Experiment was an experiment performed by Robert A. Millikan
and Harvey Fletcher in 1909 to measure the charge of an electron.
• In the experiment, Millikan allowed charged tiny oil droplets to pass through a hole into
an electric field.
• By varying the strength of the electric field, the charge over an oil droplet was calculated,
which always came as an integral value of ‘e.’
• The conclusion of this is that the charge is said to be quantized, i.e. the charge on any
particle will always be an integral multiple of e which is 1.6*10^-19
Neil Bohr Model
Properties of Electrons, Protons and Neutrons
Bohr’s Model of an Atom

Bohr came up with the following postulates to overcome the objections raised against
Rutherford’s model.
• Electrons revolve around the nucleus in stable orbits without the emission of radiant
energy. Each orbit has a definite energy and is called an energy shell or energy level.
• An orbit or energy level is designated as K, L, M, and N shells. When the electron is in the
lowest energy level, it is said to be in the ground state.
• An electron emits or absorbs energy when it jumps from one orbit or energy level to
another.
• When it jumps from a higher energy level to a lower energy level, it emits energy, while it
absorbs energy when it jumps from a lower energy level to a higher energy level.
➢ Orbits:Orbits are energy shells surrounding the nucleus in which electrons revolve.
Electron Distribution in Different Orbits

The distribution was suggested by Bohr and Bury.
• The maximum number of electrons present in a shell is given by the formula 2n2, where ‘n’
is the orbit number or energy level index, 1,2, 3,….
• The maximum number of electrons in different shells are as follows: the first orbit will have
2*12=2, the second orbit will have 2*2Msup>2=8, the third orbit will have 2*32=18, the fourth
orbit 2*42=32 and so on.
• The shells are always filled in a step-wise manner from the lower to higher energy levels.
Electrons are not filled in the next shell unless previous shells are filled.
Calculation of Mass Number for Isotopic Elements
When an element has an isotope, the mass number can be calculated by the different proportions
it exists in.
For example, take 98% Carbon-12u and 2% Carbon-13u
This does not mean that any Carbon atoms exist with a mass number of 12.02u. If you take a
certain amount of Carbon, it will contain both isotopes of Carbon, and the average mass is 12.02 u
Types of Chemical Reactions

Taking into consideration different factors, chemical reactions are grouped into multiple
categories.
A few examples are:
●Combination
● Decomposition
● Single Displacement
● Double displacement
● Redox
● Endothermic
● Exothermic
● Precipitation
● Neutralisation
Combination Reaction
In a combination reaction, two elements or one element and one compound or two compounds
combine to give one single product.
When quicklime or calcium oxide (CaO) reacts with water, slaked lime [Ca(OH)2] is formed. During
this reaction, a large amount of heat is released. So, this reaction is an exothermic Reaction.
CaO + H2O →Ca(OH)2
Decomposition Reaction
A single reactant decomposes on the application of heat or light, or electricity to give two or more
products.
Types of decomposition reactions:
a. Decomposition reactions which require heat-thermolytic decomposition or thermolysis.
b. Decomposition reactions which require light-photolytic decomposition or photolysis.
c. Decomposition reactions which require electricity – electrolytic decomposition or electrolysis.
Displacement Reaction
A more reactive element displaces a less reactive element from its compound or solution.
Double Displacement Reaction or Precipitation Reaction

An exchange of ions between the reactants takes place to give new products.
For example,
An insoluble compound called precipitate forms when two solutions containing soluble salts are
combined.
One of the best examples of precipitation reactions is the chemical reaction between potassium
chloride and silver nitrate, in which solid silver chloride is precipitated out. This is the insoluble salt
formed as a product of the precipitation reaction. The chemical equation for this precipitation
reaction is provided below.
AgNO3(aqueous) + KCl(aqueous) —–AgCl(precipitate) + KNO3(aqueous)
Redox Reaction
A redox reaction occurs when the oxidation states of the substrate change. The loss of electrons
or an increase in the oxidation state of a chemical or its atoms is referred to as oxidation. The gain
of electrons or a decrease in the oxidation state of a chemical or its atoms is referred to as
reduction.
Oxidation and reduction take place simultaneously.
Oxidation: Substance loses electrons or gains oxygen or loses hydrogen.
Reduction: Substance gains electrons or loses oxygen or gains hydrogen.
Oxidising agent – a substance that oxidises another substance and self-gets reduced.
Reducing agent – a substance that reduces another substance and self-gets oxidised.
Endothermic and Exothermic reaction

Exothermic reaction – heat is evolved during a reaction. Most of the combination reactions are
exothermic.
Al + Fe2O3 → Al2O3 + Fe + heat
CH4 + 2O2 → CO2 + 2H2O + heat
Effect of Oxidation Reaction in Everyday Life

Endothermic – Heat is required to carry out the reaction.
6CO2 + 6H2O + Sunlight → C6H12O6 + 6O2
Glucose
Most of the decomposition reactions are endothermic.
➢ Corrosion: Gradual deterioration of a material, usually a metal, by the action of moisture, air or
chemicals in the surrounding environment.
➢ Rusting:
4Fe(s) + 3O2(from air) + xH2O(moisture) → 2Fe2O3.xH2O(rust)
Corrosion of copper:
Cu(s) + H2O(moisture) + CO2(from air) → CuCO3.Cu(OH)2(green)
Corrosion of silver:
Ag(s) + H2S (from air) → Ag2S(black) + H2(g)
➢ Rancidity: It refers to the oxidation of fats and oils in food that is kept for a long time. It gives foul
smell and bad taste to food. Rancid food causes stomach infections during consumption.
Prevention:
(i) Use of air-tight containers
(ii) Packaging with nitrogen
(iii) Refrigeration
(iv) Addition of antioxidants or preservatives
Introduction to Acids, Bases and Salts

A substance that tastes sour in water, turns blue litmus red, and neutralises the bases is known as
an acid. If a substance’s aqueous solution tastes bitter, turns red litmus blue, or neutralises acids,
it’s called a base. Salt is a neutral material that has no effect on litmus in an aqueous solution.
Classification of Matter
On the basis of
a) Composition – elements, compounds and mixtures
b) State – solids, liquids and gases
c) Solubility – suspensions, colloids and solutions
Types of mixtures – homogeneous and heterogeneous
Types of compounds – covalent and ionic
➢ What Is an Acid and a Base?

Ionisable and Non-Ionisable Compounds
An ionisable compound, when dissolved in water or in its molten state, dissociates into ions
almost entirely. Examples: NaCl, HCl, KOH, etc.
A non-ionisable compound does not dissociate into ions when dissolved in water or in its molten
state. Examples: glucose, acetone, etc.
Acids and Bases

An acid is any hydrogen-containing substance that is capable of donating a proton (hydrogen ion)
to another substance. A base is a molecule or ion able to accept a hydrogen ion from an acid.
Acidic substances are usually identified by their sour taste.
Acids, Bases and Salts
1) A substance that tastes sour in water, turns blue litmus red, and neutralises the bases is known as an
acid.
2) If a substance’s aqueous solution tastes bitter, turns red litmus blue, or neutralises acids, it’s called a
base.
3) Salt is a neutral material that has no effect on litmus in an aqueous solution.
Acids and Bases

1) An acid is any hydrogen-containing substance that is capable of donating a proton (hydrogen ion) to
another substance. Acidic substances are usually identified by their sour taste.
2) A base is a molecule or ion able to accept a hydrogen ion from an acid.
Arrhenius’ Theory of Acids and Bases

1) According to Arrhenius theory, acid is a substance that gives H+ ions on dissolving in the aqueous
solution. It increases the concentration of H+ ions in the solution.
2) The base is a substance that ionises OH– ion by dissolving in the aqueous solution. The concentration of
OH- ions is high in the solution.
Arrhenius acid
Arrhenius acid in the aqueous solution increases the concentration of protons or H+ ions. For example,
hydrochloric acid in the water. HCl undergoes a dissociation reaction to produce an H+ ion and a Cl– ion, as
explained below. The concentration of the H+ ions is increased by forming hydronium ions.
HCl (aq) → H+(aq) + Cl–(aq)
HCl (aq) + H2O(l) → H3O+(aq) + Cl–(aq)
Arrhenius Acids examples
a) Hydrochloric acid (HCl)
b) Nitric acid (HNO3)
c) Sulphuric acid (H2SO4)
d) Phosphoric acid (H3PO4)
e) Carbonic acid (H2CO3)
f) Acetic acid (CH3COOH)
Arrhenius Base
- An Arrhenius base is a substrate that increases the concentration of hydroxide ions in the aqueous
solution. - The example for Arrhenius base is a highly soluble sodium hydroxide compound in water, which
dissociates to give sodium ion and hydroxide ion.
- In an aqueous solution, NaOH completely dissolves to give hydroxide ions and sodium ions, to increase
the concentration of hydroxide ions.
NaOH(aq) → Na+(aq) + OH–(aq)
Arrhenius Bases examples

Sodium hydroxide NaOH
Potassium hydroxide KOH
Calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2
Magnesium hydroxide Mg(OH)2
Limitations of the Arrhenius Theory
The Arrhenius theory is limited in that it can only describe acid-base chemistry in aqueous solutions.
Similar reactions can also occur in non-aqueous solvents, however, as well as between molecules in the gas
phase. As a result, modern chemists usually prefer the Brønsted-Lowry theory, which is useful in a broader
range of chemical reactions.
Uses of Acids
Substance Acid
Sour Milk Lactic Acid
Apple Mallic Acid
Butter/ Curd Butyric Acid
Ant/ Bees Formic Acid
Soda Water Carbonyl Acid
Batteries Sulphuric Acid
To remove Rust in Clothes Use Oxalic Acid
Vinegar Acetic Acid
Guava, Oranges Ascorbic Acid
Proteins Amino Acids
Tea, Tomatoes Oxalic Acid
Grapes/ Tamarind/ Goose Berries Tartaric Acid
Citrus fruits Citric Acid
➢ Bronsted Lowry Theory

According to Bronsted-Lowry theory, acid is a substance which donates an H+ ion or a proton and
forms its conjugate base and the base is a substance which accepts an H+ ion or a proton and forms its
conjugate acid.
Bronsted-Lowry Acid
The Bronsted-Lowry acid is a substance which donates a proton or H+ ion to another compound.
A conjugate base can accept a proton and acid reforms.
Bronsted-Lowry Base
The Bronsted-Lowry base is a substance which accepts a proton or H+ ion from other compounds.
A conjugated acid can donate a proton and base reforms.
The Bronsted-Lowry theory of an acid-base reaction involves the transfer of protons or
H+ ions between the acid and base.
Lewis acid & Base Theory

Lewis acids and bases are described by the Lewis theory of acid-base reactions as electron-pair
acceptors and electron pair donors respectively.
Therefore, a Lewis base can donate a pair of electrons to a Lewis acid to form a product containing a
coordinate covalent bond.This product is also referred to as a Lewis adduct . An illustration detailing
the reaction between a Lewis acid and base leading to the formation of a coordinate covalent bond
between them is given below.
Lewis Acid
Lewis Acids are the chemical species which have empty orbitals and are able to accept electron pairs
from Lewis bases. This term was classically used to describe chemical species with a trigonal planar
structure and an empty p-orbital
Lewis Base
Atomic or molecular chemical species having a highly localized HOMO (The Highest Occupied Molecular
Orbital) act as Lewis bases. These chemical species have the ability to donate an electron pair to a given
Lewis acid in order to form an adduct
Physical Test
Given are two possible physical tests to identify an acid or a base.
a. Taste
An acid tastes sour, whereas a base tastes bitter.
The method of taste is not advised, as an acid or a base could be contaminated or corrosive.
Example: The flavours of curd, lemon juice, orange juice, and vinegar are all sour. Because they
contain acids, these compounds have a sour flavour. Baking soda has a sour flavour. It’s an
example of a foundation.
b. Effect on Indicators by Acids and Bases

An indicator is a chemical substance which shows a change in its physical properties, mainly
colour or odour, when brought in contact with an acid or a base.
Below mentioned are commonly used indicators and the different colours they exhibit:
a) Litmus
In a neutral solution – purple
In an acidic solution – red
In a basic solution – blue
Litmus is also available as strips of paper in two variants – red litmus and blue litmus.
An acid turns a moist blue litmus paper to red.
A base turns a moist red litmus paper to blue.
b) Methyl orange
In a neutral solution – orange
In an acidic solution – red
In a basic solution – yellow
c) Phenolphthalein
In a neutral solution – colourless
In an acidic solution – remains colourless
In a basic solution – pink
Uses of Important Base
1. Sodium Hydroxide: Manufacturing of Soap, Purification of petroleum, Paper, Medicines
& Textile Industry.
2. Calcium Oxide: Bleaching Powder, White Wash, etc.
3. Calcium Hydroxide: Bleaching Powder, White Wash, in Tanning, Helps to convert Hard
water into Soft Water.
4. Magnesium Hydroxide: Milk of magnesia, Acid Poisoning Antidote.
5. Potassium Hydroxide: making of Soft Soap, helps to absorbs SO2 & CO2
Acid-Base Reactions
A neutralisation reaction occurs when an acid reacts with a base. Salt and water are the end
products of this reaction. An acid–base neutralisation reaction is formulated as a double-
replacement reaction in this standard approach.
Reactions of Acids and Bases
a) Reaction of acids and bases with metals

Acids, in general, react with metals to produce salt and hydrogen gas. Bases, in general, do not
react with metals and do not produce hydrogen gas.
Acid + active metal → salt + hydrogen + heat
2HCl + Mg → MgCl2 + H2 (↑)
Hydrochloric acid + Magnesium → Magnesium chloride + Hydrogen
Base + metal → salt + hydrogen + heat
2NaOH + Zn → Na2ZnO2 + H2 (↑)
Sodium hydroxide + Zinc → Sodium zincate + Hydrogen
A more reactive metal displaces the less reactive metal from its base.
2Na + Mg (OH) 2 → 2NaOH + Mg
Sodium + Magnesium hydroxide → Sodium hydroxide + Magnesium
b) Reaction of acids with metal carbonates and bicarbonates

Acids produce carbon dioxide, as well as metal salts and water, when they react with metal
carbonates or metal bicarbonates. Sodium chloride, carbon dioxide, and water are formed when
sodium carbonate interacts with hydrochloric acid. Allowing carbon dioxide gas to travel through
lime water turns it milky.
Acid + metal carbonate or bicarbonate → salt + water + carbon dioxide.
2HCl + CaCO3 → CaCl2 + H2O + CO2
H2SO4 + Mg (HCO3)2 → MgSO4 + 2H2O + 2CO2
Effervescence indicates the liberation of CO2 gas.
c) Reaction of Acid with Base

1. Reaction of metal oxides and hydroxides with acids
Metal oxides or metal hydroxides are basic in nature.
Acid + base → salt + water + heat
H2SO4 + MgO → MgSO4 + H2O
2HCl + Mg (OH) 2 → MgCl2 + 2H2O
2. Reaction of non-metal oxides with bases
Non-metal oxides are acidic in nature
Base + Nonmetal oxide → salt + water + heat
2NaOH + CO2→ Na2CO3 + H2O
3. Reaction of acids and base
A very common acid is hydrochloric acid. The reaction between strong acid, says hydrochloric
acid and strong base say sodium hydroxide, forms salt and water. The complete chemical
equation is shown below.
HCl (strong acid) + NaOH (strong base) → NaCl (salt) + H2O (water)
Water
Acids and Bases in Water
When added to water, acids and bases dissociate into their respective ions and help in conducting electricity.
Difference between a Base and an Alkali

Base:
• Bases undergo a neutralisation reaction with acids.

• They are comprised of metal oxides, metal hydroxides, metal carbonates and metal
bicarbonates.
• Most of them are insoluble in water.
Alkali:
• An alkali is an aqueous solution of a base, (mainly metallic hydroxides).

• It dissolves in water and dissociates to give OH− ion.
• All alkalis are bases, but not all bases are alkalis.
➢ Hydronium Ion:Hydronium ion is formed when a hydrogen ion accepts a lone pair of
electrons from the oxygen atom of a water molecule, forming a coordinate covalent bond.
➢ Dilution:Dilution is the process of reducing the concentration of a solution by adding

more solvent (usually water) to it.
It is a highly exothermic process.
To dilute acid, the acid must be added to water and not the other way round.
Strength of Acids and Bases

Strong acid or base: When all molecules of a given amount of an acid or a base dissociate
completely in water to furnish their respective ions, H+(aq) for acid and OH−(aq) for base).
Weak acid or base: When only a few of the molecules of a given amount of an acid or a
base dissociate in water to furnish their respective ions, H+(aq) for acid and OH−(aq) for base).
Dilute acid: contains less number of H+(aq) ions per unit volume.
Concentrated acid: contains more number of H+(aq) ions per unit volume.
➢ Universal Indicator: A universal indicator has a pH range from 0 to 14 that

indicates the acidity or alkalinity of a solution.
A neutral solution has pH=7
pH
pH=−log10[H+]
In pure water, [H+]=[OH−]=10−7 mol/L. Hence, the pH of pure water is 7.
The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14.
If pH < 7 → acidic solution
If pH > 7→ basic solution
Importance of pH in Everyday Life

1. pH sensitivity of plants and animals
Plants and animals are sensitive to pH. Crucial life processes such as digestion of food, functions
of enzymes and hormones happen at a certain pH value.
2. pH of a soil
The pH of a soil optimal for the growth of plants or crops is 6.5 to 7.0.
3. pH in the digestive system

The process of digestion happens at a specific pH in our stomach which is 1.5 to 4.
The pH of the interaction of enzymes, while food is being digested, is influenced by HCl in our
stomach.
4. pH in tooth decay
Tooth decay happens when the teeth are exposed to an acidic environment of pH 5.5 and below.
5. pH of self-defence by animals and plants
Acidic substances are used by animals and plants as a self-defence mechanism. For example, bee
and plants like nettle secrete a highly acidic substance for self-defence. These secreted acidic
substances have a specific pH.
Substance pH Value
Gastric Juice 1.2
Lemon Juice 2.2
Pure water 7
Milk of magnesia 10
Sodium hydroxide solution 14
Human Blood 7.35 – 7.45

Sea water 7.5 – 8.4
Ammonia 10.6 – 11.6
Milk 6.5 – 6.7
Normal rain 5.6 – 6
Acid rain 2 – 5.6
Human Urine 6
Black coffee 5
Beers 4.5
Wines 2.8 – 3.8
Vinegar 2.9
Lemon Juice 2.4
Manufacture of acids and bases

a) Nonmetal oxide + water → acid
SO2(g) + H2O(l) → H2SO3(aq)
SO3(g) + H2O(l) → H2SO4(aq)
4NO2(g) + 2H2O(l) + O2(g) → 4HNO3(aq)
Non-metal oxides are thus referred to as acid anhydrides.
b) Hydrogen + halogen → acid

H2(g) + Cl2(g) → 2HCl(g)
HCl(g) + H2O(l) → HCl(aq)
c) Metallic salt + conc. sulphuric acid → salt + more volatile acid
2NaCl(aq) + H2SO4(aq) → Na2SO4(aq) + 2HCl(aq)
2KNO3(aq) + H2SO4(aq) → K2SO4(aq) + 2HNO3(aq)
d) Metal + oxygen → metallic oxide (base)
4Na(s) + O2(g) → 2Na2O(s)
2Mg(s) + O2(g) → 2MgO(s)
e) Metal + water → base or alkali + hydrogen
Zn(s) + H2O(steam) →ZnO(s)+ H2(g)
f) Few metallic oxides + water → alkali
Na2O(s) + H2O(l) → 2NaOH(aq)
g) Ammonia + water → ammonium hydroxide
NH3(g) + H2O(l) → NH4OH(aq)
Salts
Salt is a combination of an anion of an acid and a cation of a base.
Examples – KCl, NaNO3 , CaSO4, etc.
Salts are usually prepared by the neutralisation reaction of an acid and a base.
➢ Common Salt: Sodium Chloride (NaCl) is referred to as common salt because it’s
used all over the world for cooking.
➢ Family of Salts:Salts having the same cation or anion belong to the same family.
For example, NaCl, KCl, LiCl.
➢ Characteristics:
• Solid in Nature.
• Completely dissolved in Water
• Having High Melting Point & Boiling Points.
• Salts are of good Conductors of electricity.
Uses of important Salts

1. Sodium Chloride:helps to melt in Ice, helps to release HCl in Stomach, Nervous
Systemused in the manufacture of chlorine, caustic soda, washing
soda and baking soda.
2. NaOH: Manufacturing of Soap & Detergent, Paper, Artificial Thread, Petroleum
Purification, Bleach and Colour.
3. Sodium Carbonate/ Washing Soda:to remove Permanent impurity of water,
Soap, Borax, etc.
4. Potassium Nitrate:Gun Powder & Explosive, Fire Cracker, Fertilizers, Glass.
5. Potash Allum: helps to stop Bleeding of Blood, Colour Industry, in Printing.
6. Ammonium Chloride: Ammonia, Fertilizers , Dying of clothes.
7. Hypo/ Sodium Thio Sulphate: Photography, helps to separates Gold & SilverFrom Minerals.
8. Ammonium saltsare used as fertilizers.
9. Silver bromideis used in photography.
10.Potassium Chlorateis used in the match industry.
11.Aluminium sulphateis used in preparing alums.
pH of Salts
A salt of a strong acid and a strong base will be neutral in nature. pH = 7 (approx.).
A salt of a weak acid and a strong base will be basic in nature. pH > 7.
A salt of a strong acid and a weak base will be acidic in nature. pH < 7.
The pH of a salt of a weak acid and a weak base is determined by conducting a pH test.
Chemicals from Common Salt

Sodium chloride is a common salt. NaCl is its molecular formula. The fundamental element in our
meals is sodium chloride. It is used in our food as a flavour enhancer as well as a
preservative. From common salt, we may make the following four compounds.
1. Sodium hydroxide or lye or caustic soda

2. Baking soda or sodium hydrogen carbonate, or sodium bicarbonate
3. Washing soda or sodium carbonate decahydrate
4. Bleaching powder or calcium hypochlorite
➢ Preparation of Sodium Hydroxide

The strong base sodium hydroxide is a common and useful one. Preparing a solution of sodium
hydroxide (NaOH) in water requires extra caution because the exothermic reaction releases a lot
of heat. It’s possible that the solution will spatter or boil. Here’s how to manufacture a sodium
hydroxide solution safely, as well as recipes for a variety of NaOH strengths.
Chemical formula – NaOH
Also known as – caustic soda
➢ Preparation (Chlor-alkali process):

Electrolysis of brine (solution of common salt, NaCl) is carried out.
At anode: Cl2 is released
At cathode: H2 is released
Sodium hydroxide remains in the solution.
Bleaching Powder
Bleaching powder is soluble in water and is used as a bleaching agent in textile industries. It is
also used as an oxidizing agent and a disinfectant in many industries. It should also be noted that
bleaching powder is synthesized by the reacting chlorine gas on dry slaked lime i.e. Ca(OH)2.
Chemical formula – Ca(OCl)Cl or CaOCl2
Preparation – Ca(OH)2(aq)+Cl2(g)→CaOCl2(aq)+H2O(l)
On interaction with water – bleaching powder releases chlorine which is responsible for bleaching
action.
Uses of Bleaching Powder
• It is used for bleaching dirty clothes in the laundry, as a bleaching agent for cotton and linen
in the textile industry.
• It is a strong oxidizing agent, hence used as an oxidizer in many industries.
• It is used as a disinfectant which is used for disinfecting water to make potable water.
Baking Soda
Sodium bicarbonate, also known as baking soda or bicarbonate of soda, is a chemical compound
with the formula NaHCO3 and the IUPAC designation sodium hydrogen carbonate. A sodium
cation (Na+) and a bicarbonate anion (HCO3) combine to form this salt. Sodium bicarbonate is a
white, crystalline substance that is commonly found as a fine powder. It tastes slightly salty and
alkaline, like washing soda (sodium carbonate).
Chemical name – Sodium hydrogen carbonate
Chemical formula – NaHCO3
Preparation (Solvay process):
a. Limestone is heated: CaCO3→CaO+CO2
b. CO2 is passed through a concentrated solution of sodium chloride and ammonia:
NaCl(aq)+NH3(g)+CO2(g)+H2O(l)→NaHCO3(aq)+NH4Cl(aq)
Uses:
• Reduces the acidity in the stomach

• Acts as an antacid which is used to treat stomach upset and indigestion
• Used in the process of washing as a water softener
Washing Soda
Chemical name – Sodium hydrogen carbonate
Chemical formula – NaHCO3
Preparation (Solvay process) –
a. Limestone is heated: CaCO3 →CaO + CO2
b. CO2 is passed through a concentrated solution of sodium chloride and ammonia:
NaCl(aq) + NH3(g) + CO2(g) + H2O(l) → NaHCO3(aq) + NH4Cl(aq)
Uses
1. In the glass, soap and paper industries
2. Softening of water
3. Domestic cleaner
Crystals of Salts
Certain salts form crystals by combining with a definite proportion of water. The water that
combines with the salt is called water of crystallisation.
The process by which a solid form, in which the atoms or molecules are strongly arranged into a
structure known as a crystal, is known as crystallisation. Precipitation from a solution, freezing,
and, more rarely, direct deposition from a gas are some of the ways crystals form.
Example:
Table salt (sodium chloride or halite crystals), sugar (sucrose), and snowflakes are examples of
common materials that form crystals. Many gemstones, such as quartz and diamond, are crystals.
Plaster of Paris
Plaster of Paris is a widely used chemical compound that is extensively used in sculpting
materials and gauze bandages. Plaster of Paris is a white powdery chemical compound that is
hydrated calcium sulphate that is usually obtained by calcining gypsum. While we have seen many
applications of this material in our everyday lives, if we try to understand its chemistry, we will find
that it is a white powdery chemical compound that is hydrated calcium sulphate that is usually
obtained by calcining gypsum. To put it another way, Plaster of Paris is often manufactured of
heated gypsum at a high temperature.
Gypsum plaster is another name for the plaster of Paris. Plaster of Paris is expressed as CaSO4. ½
H2O in the chemical formula.
Gypsum, CaSO4.2H2O (s) on heating at 100°C (373K) gives CaSO4. ½ H2O and 3/2 H2O
CaSO4. ½ H2O is plaster of Paris.
CaSO4. ½ H2O means two formula units of CaSO4 share one molecule of water.
Uses – cast for healing fractures.
Dobereiner’s Triads
- Dobereiner’s triads were groups of elements with similar properties that were identified by the German
chemist Johann Wolfgang Dobereiner. He observed that groups of three elements (triads) could be formed
in which all the elements shared similar physical and chemical properties.
- Dobereiner stated in his law of triads that the arithmetic mean of the atomic masses of the first and third
element in a triad would be approximately equal to the atomic mass of the second element in that triad.
He also suggested that this law could be extended for other quantifiable properties of elements, such as
density.
DOBEREINER TRIADS
●Dobereiner noted that there were groups of elements with three elements known as triads.
●Elements in each group or a triad possess similar chemical properties.
●Dobereiner discovered that the relative atomic mass of the middle element in each triad was close to the
average of the relative atomic masses of the other two elements.This statement is called the Dobereiner’s
law of Triads.
Limitation Of Dobereiner’s Triads:

1. All the then known elements could not be arranged in the form of triads.
2. The law failed for very low mass or for very high mass elements.
3. In the case of F, Cl, Br, the atomic mass of Cl is not an arithmetic mean of atomic masses of F and Br.
As the techniques improved for measuring atomic masses accurately, the law was unableto remain strictly
valid.
History of Newlands’ law of octaves

In chemistry, the law of octaves was proposed by the English chemist J.A.R. Newlands in 1865. Newlands
was one of the first to notice a periodic pattern in the elements’ properties and predicted later
developments of the periodic law. He observed that when elements were arranged to increase atomic
masses, there was much similarity in the properties of every eighth element like the musical notes do, re,
mi, etc. Newland named this repetition as the law of octaves.
Law of Octaves
According to the Law of Octaves, while arranging the elements in increasing order of their atomic masses
in the periodic table, the eighth element’s properties are similar to that of the first. The elements in the
Newlands Law were divided into horizontal rows and each row was comprised of 7 elements. Thus, each
element in the parallel row must have similar physical and chemical properties. But this is not true.
An example of the Law of Octaves is lithium, sodium, and potassium; they share the same physical and
chemical properties. The remaining elements after potassium (Cu, Rb, Ag, and more) are different. Those
elements do not show similarities to the former elements. This is the reason why the law of octaves fails to
incorporate transition metals.
Examples: The eighth element of lithium is sodium. Similarly, the eight-element from sodium is potassium,
and all three have similar chemical properties. The eighth element from fluorine is chlorine. Fluorine and
chlorine have similar chemical properties.
Here are some major features of Newlands’ Law of Octaves

-Newlands Octaves arranged the known 62 elements then into roughly 8 groups of 8 each.
- The elements were in increasing order of atomic weight.
-Every element shared properties with the 8th element after it.
-Sometimes two elements were made to occupy one place, to reflect their properties.
In order to fit elements in the table –
(a) two elements were put in to the same slot, e.g. Co and Ni ; Ce and La etc.
(b) elements of dissimilar properties were kept in the same note,e.g.-
(i) Co and Ni show completely different properties from F, Cl and Br , but they all were kept in one note.
(ii) Ce and La possess different properties from Cr and Y, but are placed in same column.
(c) Elements having similar characteristics were placed at different places.
e.g. – Iron (Fe) shows resemblance with Co and Ni in properties, was placed far away.
Thus, Newlands’ Law of Octaves worked properly with lighter elements or up to calcium only
Mendeleev Periodic Table
Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeléev, a Russian chemist, was the most important contributor to the early
development of the periodic table. Many periodic tables were made but the most important one was the
Mendeleev periodic table.
In 1869, after the rejection of Newlands Octave Law, Mendeleev Periodic table came into the picture. In
Mendeleev’s periodic table, elements were arranged on the basis of the fundamental property, atomic
mass, and chemical properties. During Mendeleev’s work, only 63 elements were known. After studying
the properties of every element, Mendeleev found that the properties of elements were related to atomic
mass in a periodic way. He arranged the elements such that elements with similar properties fell into the
same vertical columns of the periodic table.
Among chemical properties, Mendeleev treated formulae of hydrides and oxides as one of the basic
criteria for categorization. He took 63 cards and on each card, he wrote the properties of one element. He
grouped the elements with similar properties and pinned it on the wall. He observed that elements were
arranged in the increasing order of atomic mass and there was the periodic occurrence of elements with
similar properties.
According to this observation, he formulated a periodic law which states:
“the properties of elements are the periodic function of their atomic masses.”
In Mendeleev periodic table, vertical columns in the periodic table and horizontal row in the periodic table
were named as groups and period, respectively.
Merits of Mendeleev Periodic Table

Some gaps were left for the elements yet to be discovered. Thus, if a certain new element is discovered, it
can be placed in a new group without disturbing any existing group.
Demerits of Mendeleev Periodic Table

- He was unable to locate hydrogen in the periodic table.
- Increase in atomic mass was not regular while moving from one element to another. Hence, the number
of elements yet to be discovered was not predictable.
- Later on, isotopes of elements were found which violated Mendeleev’s periodic law.
Modern Periodic Table
The present form of a periodic table that is widely used across the globe is the long form of the periodic
table. In this form of a periodic table, the horizontal rows are called periods and the vertical columns are
known as the groups.
Groups consist of elements that have similar outer shell electronic configuration in their atoms. Previously
the groups were named as IA,…VIIIA, VIII, IB…VIIB and 0. But now they are named as 1, 2, 3…18. In the
modern periodic table, periods are the seven horizontal rows. Principle quantum number ‘n’ decides the
period of the element. Principle quantum number (n) is one of the four quantum numbers (n, l, m, and s).
It tells us about the principle electron shell. For example, if n= 3, then it indicates the principle shell as 3.
Classification of the Elements in the Periodic Table:
Classification of the elements in the periodic table can be done in four ways on the basis of their electronic
configurations:
1) Noble gas elements:
Elements of group 18 of the modern periodic table are considered a noble gas. The electronic configuration
of the first element (helium) of this group is 1s^2. Rest all the elements (neon, argon, krypton, xenon, and
radon) have their outer shell electronic configuration is ns^2 np^6. As the octet of these elements is
complete, hence they are highly stable elements.
2) Representative elements:
S-block and P-block elements come under the category of representative elements. Elements in groups 1
and 2 are known as the s – block elements (elements with outermost configuration). Group 13-17
are known as the p-block elements (outermost configuration varies from
3) Transition elements:
Elements which belong to group 3 to 12 and have their outer shell electronic configuration as
are referred to as transition elements. These elements are also known as the d-block elements.
4) Inner transition elements:

Lanthanides and actinides series which fall at the bottom of the periodic table comes under the category of
inner transition elements. In these elements the 4f and 5f orbitals are partially filled, rendering them
special properties. Outer shell electronic configuration as
Atomic Radius and Ionic Radius Trend
Atomic radius is the distance between an atom’s nucleus and its outermost or valence electrons. On the
other hand, the ionic radius is half the distance between two ions that barely touch each other in a
compound. The atomic and ionic radii follow the same trend in the periodic table.
Across a Period
Along a period, electrons are added to the same shell of an atom as we go from left to right. Protons are
also added to the atomic nucleus, making the nucleus more positively charged. As a result, the electrostatic
attraction between the electrons and the nucleus increases, and the valence electrons are held closer to
the nucleus. Thus, the atomic size and radius gradually decrease from left to right of a period. In other
words, the atomic radius increases from right to left
Down a Group
It is evident that as the atomic number increases down a group, the valence electrons occupy higher shells.
The inner electrons shield the valence electrons and prevent them from getting closer to the nucleus.
Hence, they are further away from the nucleus. Therefore, the atomic size and atomic radius increase from
top to bottom.
* Most Reactive Metal- Caesium
* Most Reactive Non-Metal- Fluorine
Valency
Valency may be defined as “the combining capacity of the atom of an element with atoms of other
elements in order to acquire the stable configuration (i.e. 8 electrons in the valence shell. In some special
cases it is 2 electrons).”
METALLIC AND NON-METALLIC PROPERTIES

The metallic character of an element is the ability to lose an electron during a chemical reaction due to its
low ionization energy. On the contrary, the non-metallic character is the ability to gain an electron during a
reaction
Across the Periods and Down the Groups
- Elements in the bottom left of the periodic table have the lowest ionization energies. Hence, they are
more reactive than other elements in their respective groups. They also have the lowest electron affinity.
Thus, they are most metallic. The metallic character decreases across the periods from left to right and
increases down the groups from top to bottom. An exception to this is hydrogen (H) which is a non-metal.
- On the other hand, the elements on the top right of the periodic table, except noble gases, have the
highest ionization energy and electron affinity. Hence, they readily accept electrons during a chemical
reaction. These elements are the least metallic. The non-metallic character trend is opposite to that of the
metallic character.
ELECTRONEGATIVITY:
The relative tendency of an atom to attract the shared pair of electrons towards itself is called
electronegativity.
Across a Period
The atoms on the left of the periodic table have less than a half-full valence shell. They require more
energy to attract electrons to complete their valence shell. As a result, they do not tend to attract
electrons and have low electronegativity values. On the other hand, the atoms on the right have more than
half-full valence shells and require less energy to acquire electrons to complete their valence shells. These
atoms will have higher electronegativity values than the ones on the left. Therefore, the electronegativity
increases from left to right across a period.
Down a Group
Electronegativity increases from bottom to top.
Some exceptions to the above trend include noble gases, lanthanides, and actinides. The noble gases lie on
the right of the periodic table, have a complete valence shell, and do not attract any electrons. Their
electronegativity is zero. On the other hand, the lanthanides and actinides have complex atomic structures
and do not follow any electronegativity trend.
IONIZATION ENERGY
The ionization energy (IE) is the amount of energy required to remove the most loosely bound electron,
the valence electron, of an isolated gaseous atom to form a cation.It is the opposite of electronegativity
Across a Period
The elements on the right of the periodic table have nearly complete valence shells. Hence, it is not easy to
remove an electron from them. These atoms will have higher ionization energies. On the other hand, the
elements on the left have fewer electrons on the valence shell. They tend to lose electrons and take the
configuration of their nearest inert gas elements. These atoms will have lower ionization energies. Thus,
the ionization energy increases from left to right
Down a Group
Down a group, the valence electrons are further away from the nucleus. It means that the electrostatic
forces between the electrons and the nucleus are weak. Hence, the valence electrons are easy to remove.
Thus, the ionization energy decreases from top to bottom.
ELECTRON AFFINITY:
- The electron affinity of an atom or molecule is defined as the amount of energy released or spent when
an electron is added to a neutral atom or molecule in the gaseous state to form a negative ion.
Across a Period
Across a period, the atoms become smaller due to the reason discussed in the section on atomic radius. So,
when an electron is added to the valence shell, it will experience higher electrostatic attraction. The
electron will move closer to the nucleus, thereby increasing the electron affinity. Thus, the electron affinity
increases from left to right.
Down a Group
The atomic radius increases as the atomic number increases down a group. The increasing radius allows
the electron to remain further from the nucleus. As this distance increases, the electrostatic force of
attraction between the nucleus and electron becomes weaker. Thus, the electron affinity decreases from
top to bottom.
An exception to this trend is chlorine (period 3, group 17), which has a greater electron affinity than
fluorine (period 2, group 17). The reason is that chlorine has more space for electrons in its outermost shell
than fluorine. This larger space allows the chlorine atom to accommodate the extra electron, thus
increasing the electron affinity.
S-block elements and their properties

The s-block elements belong to Group 1 and Group 2 in the periodic table. The elements of Group 1 are
called alkali metals, and the elements of Group 2 are called alkaline earth metals. They form alkalies on
reacting with water. They have one or two s-electrons in their valence shells and are highly reactive.
The elements of the s-block are as follows: Lithium, Sodium, Potassium, Rubidium, Caesium, Francium,
Beryllium, Magnesium, Calcium, Strontium, Barium, and Radium.
Some of their properties are as follows:
1) Abundance: Sodium and Potassium are the seventh and eighth most abundantly found elements in
nature, and they are a part of the s-block elements in Group 1. Other elements of the block are not as
common as the above two. From group 2, magnesium is relatively abundant in nature.
S-block elements and their properties
2) Valence electrons: The valence shells of s-block elements have either 1 or 2 electrons.
3) Nature of compounds: the compounds that the elements of the s-block form are primarily metallic.
4) Diagonal relationship: This means that the first element of one group resembles the second element of
the next group. There is a resemblance of elements that are diagonal to each other.
5) Anomalous behaviour: the first elements of both groups 1 and 2 differ from the other members of the
block due to the following reasons –
a) Size: the atomic and ionic size of these two elements, lithium, and beryllium, is much smaller than the
rest of the group elements.
b) Electronegativity: Most elements of the s-block are highly electropositive but Lithium, and Beryllium are
electronegative because they need more activation energy to lose valence electron.
c) No d-orbitals: These two elements do not possess d-orbitals which can be used to form bonds.
6) Oxidation state: the oxidation state of Group 1 elements is +1, and the oxidation state of Group 2 is
always +2.
7) Electronic configuration: All the inner shells of these elements are complete. They have an electronic
configuration of the type
8) Occurrence: the elements of the s-block in the periodic table are highly reactive and therefore are found
in compounds with other elements in nature.
9) Hydration enthalpy of alkali metals : The tendency to become hydrated increases with the decrease in
the size of the ion. Higher the tendency to get hydrated higher the hydration enthalpy. So the hydration
enthalpy of alkali metals decreases as one goes down the group because the ion size increases. So the
hydration enthalpy order is as follows – Li>Na>Rb>Cs.
10) Hydration enthalpy of alkali earth metals: Since the size of alkaline earth metals is smaller than alkali
earth metals, they have higher hydration enthalpy than alkali metals.
P-Block elements and their properties

Those elements in which the last electron occupies p-orbitals and are placed together in groups 13, 14, 15,
16, and 17 (Except Helium) are called p-block elements. As p-block orbitals can accommodate totals of a
maximum of six electrons that’s why p-block elements have been divided into six groups.
Each group of p-block elements is recognized by its first element. Group 13 is called Boron Family, group 14
is called Carbon Family, group 15 is called Nitrogen Family, Group 16 is called Oxygen Family, group 17 is
called Halogen or fluorine Family, group 18 is called Noble Gas Family or Neon Family. Here you need to
keep in mind that Helium is not a p-block element although it is a part of the noble gas family as it's also a
noble gas. Helium is a part of s-block elements. These elements include some metals, all nonmetals, and
metalloids
P-Block elements and their properties
- The p- block elements are usually shiny and also a good conductor of electricity as well as heat. The p-
block elements tend to gain an electron.
Gallium is a metal that can melt even in the palm of your hand.
- One of the most important metalloids of the p-block group is silicon; silicon is an important component of
glass.
- We usually see that coal is used in various villages to cook food. This burning of fuel is nothing but a P-
block element in the periodic table i.e. carbon.
-Another byproduct of carbon is diamond; diamond is often used for making beautiful jewellery that is also
made up of the p-block element called carbon.
P-Block Properties
1) In the atoms of the p-block elements, the last electron enters the p-subshell of the outermost shell.
2) In these elements, the np subshell is gradually filled up. The valence shell configuration varies from ns2
np1 to ns2 np6.
3) The general electronic configuration of elements of p-block is ns2np1-6 (Except Helium).
4) The number of electrons in the penultimate shell of p-block elements is either 2 or 8 or 18.
5) Except for F and inert gases, p-block elements show a number of oxidation states from +n to (n- 8)
where n is the number of electrons present in the outermost shell.
6)The p-block elements generally show covalency but higher members can show electrovalency. The highly
electronegative elements like halogens F, Cl etc., show electrovalency by accepting electrons and forming
anions. Some of the elements show coordinate valency also.
7) In the period from left to right, there is a regular increase in non-metallic character. However, non-
metallic character decreases in the groups from top to bottom.
8) ionization energies increase from left to right in a period while decreasing in a group from top to
bottom. The members of group VA and zero group have exceptionally high values of ionization energies on
account of half-filled and fully filled orbitals in the valence shell.
9) In every period, reducing nature decreases from left to right while oxidizing nature increases. Reducing
nature increases in a group from top to bottom. Halogens are strong oxidizing agents.
10) Most of the p-block elements form acidic oxides.
11) No member of the p-block series or the salts imparts a characteristic color to the flame.
12) A number of elements of the p-block series show the phenomenon of allotropy. Carbon, silicon,
phosphorus, sulfur, boron, germanium, tin, arsenic, etc., show this property.
13) Catenation property is shown by many elements of the p-block series such as carbon, silicon,
germanium, nitrogen, oxygen, sulfur, etc.
Group 13 (Boron Group)

- In this group, we begin to see the changeover toward the non-metallic character. First appearing at the
top of the group. Boron is a metalloid, it has characteristics intermediate between metals and non-metals,
and the rest of the group are metals.
- Aluminium is the third most abundant element in the earth’s crust (7.4 percent), and is widely used in
packaging materials. Aluminium is an active metal, but the stable oxide forms a protective coating over the
metal making it resistant to corrosion.
Group 14 (Carbon Group)

• The two metals, tin and lead, are unreactive metals and both can form ions with a two-plus or a four-plus
charge in ionic compounds.
• Carbon forms four covalent bonds in compounds rather than form monatomic ions. In the elemental
state, it has several forms, the most known of which are graphite and diamond.
• Silicon in some respects is similar to carbon in that it forms four covalent bonds, but it does not form a
wide range of compounds. Silicon is the second most abundant element in the earth’s crust (25.7 percent)
and we are surrounded by silicon-containing materials: bricks, pottery, porcelain, lubricants, computer
chips, and solar cells.
• The simplest oxide, silicon dioxide (SiO2) or silica, is a component of many rocks and minerals.
Group 15 (Nitrogen Group)

- These elements all have five valence electrons. Nitrogen and Phosphorous are non-metals. They
can gain three electrons to form fairly stable ions with a three minus charge, the nitride and phosphide
ions.
• Nitrogen, as a diatomic molecule is the major constituent of air and both elements are essential for
life. Nitrogen comprises about 3 percent of the weight of the human body and phosphorous about 1.2
percent. Commercially, these elements are important for fertilizers. Arsenic and Antimony are metalloids,
and bismuth is the only metal in the group. Bismuth can lose three electrons to form anion with a three-
plus charge.
• Bismuth is also the heaviest completely stable element that does not decay radioactively to other simpler
elements
Group 16 (Chalcogens)
This group has six valence electrons. Oxygen and sulphur are non-metals; their elemental form is
molecular, and they can gain two electrons to form ions with a two minus charge.
• Sulphur has probably the most allotropes of any element, though the most common and stable
form is the yellow crystals of S8 molecules.
Group 17 (Halogens)
- Fluorine and chlorine exist as gases at room temperature, bromine as a liquid, and iodine as a
solid.
- Halogens are highly reactive, and as such can be harmful or lethal to biological organisms in
sufficient quantities.
- Fluorine is the most reactive and the reactivity declines as we go down the group.
- Chlorine and iodine are both used as disinfectants.
• In their elemental state, the halogens are oxidizing agents and are used in bleaches.
• Chlorine is the active ingredient of most fabric bleaches and is used in the production of most
paper product
Group 18 (Noble Gases)
• The noble gasses are all non-metals and are characterized by having completely filled shells of
electrons.
• Krypton and Xenon are the only noble gasses that form any compounds at all. These elements can
do this because they have the potential to form an expanded octet by accepting electrons in an
empty d subshell. Eg. KrCl2 or XeF2 but these are highly reactive & Unstable.
Uses of p-Block Elements

p-block elements are used in various fields in so many ways. We have listed here a few uses of p-block
elements –
a) A compound of boron called borax is used in the glass making industry and pottery.
b) Boron is also used in the soap or detergent industry.
c) Boron is used in aircrafts and bullet proof vests.
d) Boron is used in steel to increase its hardness.
e) Aluminum is used in utensils, coils, cables, protection of iron and zinc, foils to wrap articles. It is used as
a reducing agent as well.
f) Germanium, arsenic, silicon are used as semiconductors.
g) Fitkari/Potash Alum is used for the purification of the water, as an antiseptic, as a coagulant & in textile
& Pharma Industry.
h) Iodine is used in iodine tincture, as an antiseptic.
i) Chlorine is used in Disinfectants.
j) Carbon and its compounds are used in numerous ways.
K) A compound of boron called Borax is used in the glass making industry and pottery.
L) Boron is also used in the soap or detergent industry
Applications of Noble gases

1. Helium
• Swimmers can carry Helium + Oxygen in their oxygen tank while going into the sea.
• Helium and Oxygen can use to treat Asthma’s Patients.
• Helium can be filled in the Balloons.
• Helium Gas is used to preserve Food.
2. Neon
• It is used for Signals on Railway Tracks, Roads, etc.
• Use Neon Bulbs in Decorative Items and Tube Lights.
3. Argon
• It is used in Arc Welding.
• It is used in Fluorescent Tubes.
4. Krypton
• It is used in Electric Discharge Tubes.
5. Xenon
• It is used in Electric Discharge Tube
• It helps to formation of large no. of Compounds.
• It is used in Bubble Chamber for the identification of Gamma & Neutrons
6. Radon
• It is used in Cancer Treatments
Note-
Scuba divers must cope with high concentrations of dissolved gases while breathing air at high pressure
underwater. Increased pressure increases the solubility of atmospheric gases in blood. When the divers
come towards surface, the pressure gradually decreases. This releases the dissolved gases and leads to
the formation of bubbles of nitrogen in the blood. This blocks capillaries and creates a medical condition
known as bends, which are painful and dangerous to life
To avoid bends, as well as, the toxic effects of high concentrations of nitrogen in the blood, the tanks
used by scuba divers are filled with air diluted with helium.
Applications of Halogens
1. Fluorine
• Fluorine is the most Electronegative Element in the Periodic Table.
• It is the Strong Oxidising in Nature.
• Its reaction is very Furious and Exothermic in Nature.
• It helps in writing at glass.
• It is used in the manufacturing of ChloroFluoroCarbons(CFCs) & Teflon.
• DichloroDifluoromethane used in the manufacturing of Freon that are used in the Refrigrators.
2. Chlorine
• It is used in the Oxidation.
• It is used in the manufacturing of Bleaching Powder.
• It is used as a Bleaching Agent.
• It is used to kill Bacteria in Water.
• It is used in the manufacturing of DDT, Chloroform & Phosphine Gas
3. Astatine
• It is Radioactive in Nature.
4. Bromine
• It is bad smell gas in nature.
• It is used in Dying Clothes.
• It is used as a Bleaching Agent.
• It is used in the manufacturing of Tear Gas & Chloropicrin Gas.
• It is used in the manufacturing of Medicines.
• AgBr is used in the negatives of PhotoGraphy.
5. Iodine
• It is used in Tincture Iodine
• It is used in the manufacturing of Iodex & Iodoform.
• It is used in the manufacturing of Explosives.
• It is also used as Germicides & Antipyretic.
Metals & Non- Metals

In a periodic table, all elements found on the planet have been appropriately ordered based on
their increasing atomic numbers. There are a total of 118 elements known to us, 92 of which are
derived naturally, and the remaining 26 are created artificially in the laboratory. Based on their
physical and chemical properties, these elements can be divided into three groups: Metalloids,
Metals, and Non-Metals.
Physical Properties
Any measurable property whose value describes a condition of a physical system is referred to as
a physical property. A system’s physical properties can be utilised to characterise its transitions b
etween brief states.
Observables are a term used to describe physical qualities.
➢ Physical Properties of Metals

●Hard and have a high tensile strength – Carbon is the only non-metal with very high tensile
strength.
●Solid at room temperature – One non-metal, bromine, is a liquid at room temperature. The other
non-metals are solids at room temperature, including carbon and sulfur.
● Sonorous – Metals produce a typical ringing sound when hit by something.
●Good conductors of heat and electricity – Graphite is a good conductor of heat and electricity.
● Malleable, i.e., can be beaten into thin sheets
● Ductile, i.e., can be drawn into thin wires
● High melting and boiling points (except Caesium (Cs) and Gallium (Ga)) – Graphite, a form of
carbon (a non-metal), has a high boiling point and exists in a solid state at room temperature.
● Dense (except alkali metals). Osmium – highest density, and lithium – least density
●Lustrous – Metals have the quality of reflecting light from their surface and can be polished, e.g.,
gold, silver and copper. Iodine and carbon are non-metals which are lustrous. Note that carbon is
lustrous only in certain forms like diamond and graphite.
● Silver-grey in colour (except gold and copper) – Metals usually have a silver or grey colour.
Some uses of Metals

➢ Sodium:
• Basic Metal
• Highly Reactive
• Atomic No. – 11
• White & Soft in Nature
• Na + Air Explosive(Exothermic Reaction)
• Na + Cl NaCl
• Sodium must be kept in Kerosine Oil.
Uses:
▪ It is strong Reducing Agent.
▪ Liquid Sodium is used in the Atomic Reactions
▪ It is used in Sodium Lamps & Antilocking Agent.
▪ It is also used in Synthetic Reactions
➢ Magnesium:
• It is Found in Magnesium Sulphate & Magnesium Chloride.
• It is the main Component of Chlorophyll.
• It is Reducing Agent.
• It is white, Soft and Ductile Metal.
• It does not react with Bases.
• After Reacting with Acids it makes Salt and Hydrogen Gas.
Uses:
▪ It is used in Flash Light Ribbon & Bulbs.
▪ It is also used in Fire Crackers and Photography.
➢ Calcium:
• It is basic Metal & Highly Reactive.
• It is white, Lustrous and Soft in Nature.
• Calcium (Ca) + Acids H2 (Hydrogen) Gas
• Calcium (Ca) + H2O Ca(OH)2 + H2 (Hydrogen) Gas
• Calcium (Ca) + Air CaO
USES:
▪ It is used in the manufacturing of Glass, Cement & Potteries.
▪ It is used in White Wash and to Kill Bacteria
➢ Aluminium:
• It does not find in the Free State.
• Atomic No. -- 13
• It is white Coloured Substance.
• It is Good Conductor of Heat & Electricity.
• It is Strong Reducing Agent
• Al + Air makes layer of Aluminium Oxide
• Al + Halogens Halides
Eg: 2Al + 3Cl2 2AlCl3
Uses:
▪ It is used in Wires, Utensils & Aluminium Foil.
▪ It is used in Welding.
▪ It is also used in the manufacturing of Paint.
➢ Copper:
• It is in free state & Red in Colour.
• It is Ductile and Malleable
• It is good conductor of heat & Electricity
• It has slow corrosion in Air.
• Conc. HCl + Cu CuCl3(Cupric Chloride)
• It does notreact with dil. HCl
• Cu + H2SO4 SO2(Sulphur Dioxide Gas)
Uses:
▪ It is used in electric products & Wires, Electric Painting.
▪ It is used in calorie meter, coins & Utensils.
▪ It is also used in the manufacturing of Alloys & Medicines.
➢ Zinc
• It is bluish white & hard in nature.
• Zn + dil. Hcl Salt + H2(Hydrogen gas)
• Zn + dil. H2SO4 Salt + SO2
• Zn + CuSO4 ZnSO4 + Cu
USES:
▪ It is used in the manufacturing of Alloys
▪ It helps in the Galvanise of Iron
▪ It is used in the extraction of Gold & Silver
▪ Zinc Phosphite used in Rat Killers.
▪ Zinc Oxide is used in the making of Artificial Teeths& Creams.
➢ Silver:
• It is very less reactive, free in state & Compound.
• It is good conductor of heat & Electricity.
• Silver(Ag) + Air(Sulphur) Ag2S(black coat in silver)
• Silver(Ag) + Conc. HNO3 NO2
• Silver(Ag) + Conc. H2SO4 SO2
• It does not react with Base.
USES:
▪ It used in Ornaments, Silver Coins & Silver Work.
▪ It is used in electroplating, Alloys & feeling of teeths.
▪ It is also used in Artificial Rain, Photography, Election Ink & Photo chromatic Glass.
➢ Gold(Au):
• It is free & in Compound State.
• It is soft, highly malleable, yellow & Lustrous.
• It is Good conductor of Heat & Electricity
• It is corrosion free & Soluble in Aquarazia
• It does not react with Bases.
USES:
▪ It is used in the making of Ornaments & Coins.
▪ It is used in Photography, Electroplating, Gold Work & Medicines.
➢ Lead(Pb):
• it is Bluish Brown and most stable metal
• It is heavy metal & Poisonous metal.
• Pb + Moist Air PbO + PbCO3
USES:
▪ It is used in metal formations, Bullets, Atomic Research.
▪ It is used in Artificial Body Organs.
▪ It is used in Soliders, Fuse Wires, Inks & Paints
➢ Uranium(U):
• It is radioactive & Rare element.
• It is not in free state.
• It is white(Lustrous), Ductile & Malleable in Nature.
USES:
▪ It is used in Nuclear Reactors.
▪ It is used in Atomic Bombs, Alloys & Medicines.
Non-Metals
Nonmetals are those elements which do not exhibit the properties of metals.
➢ Physical Properties of Non-metals

• Occur as solids, liquids and gases at room temperature
• Brittle
• Non-malleable
• Non-ductile
• Non-sonorous
• Bad conductors of heat and electricity
Exceptions in Physical Properties
• Alkali metals (Na, K, Li) can be cut using a knife.
• Mercury is a liquid metal.
• Lead and mercury are poor conductors of heat.
• Mercury expands significantly for the slightest change in temperature.
• Gallium and caesium have very low melting points.
• Iodine is non-metal, but it has lustre.
• Graphite conducts electricity.
• Diamond conducts heat and has a very high melting point.
➢ Examples of Non-metals
1. Hydrogen – Gas
2. Nitrogen – Gas
3. Oxygen – Gas
4. Fluorine – Gas
5. Chlorine – Gas
6. Bromine – Liquid
7. Iodine – Solid
8. Carbon – Solid
9. Sulphur – Solid
10. Phosphorous – Solid
11. Silicon – Solid
Some uses of Non- Metals

➢ Nitrogen(N):
• It is in composite form
• It is colourless, odourless, Tasteless & Transparent in Nature.
• Its presence is 78% in the environment.
• It is soluble in water & Neutral in nature.
USES:
▪ It helps in the manufacturing of Ammonia, Nitrites & Nitric Acids.
▪ It is used in medicines, fertilizers & Explosives
▪ It is filled in the tyres of Aeroplanes
▪ It is used electric Bulbs.
➢ Sulphur(S):
• It is in free & Composite state
• It is yellow in colour.
• It is non- conductor of electricity & weak Conductor of heat.
• It is Non- Soluble in water but Soluble in Tarbin oil
• It has poisonous effect on the lower form of life.
USES:
▪ It helps in the production of SO2
▪ It helps to kill Bacteria & germs, even in Fungicide
▪ It is used in the Vulcanization of Rubber.
▪ It is also used as a Bleaching Agent.
➢ Phosphorous(P):
• It is very reactive & not found in free state.
• Its main Ore is --- Ca3(PO4)
a) White Phosphorous/ Yellow Phosphorous(P4)
• It has Garlic like smell.
• It is insoluble in water but soluble in Carbon disulphide
• It is poisonous & Lustrous in dark room.
• P4 + Human Being Phossy Jaw(Disease)
• White Phosphorous(P4) + Air Slightly Flame
USES:
▪ It is used in fire crackers, rat Killers .
▪ It is also used in Agni Bomb.
b) Red Phosphorous(P2):
• It is red colour Solid & Odourless in nature.
• It is Non-Poisonous in nature.
• It does not react with NaOH.
USES:
▪ it is used in the manufacturing of Matchsticks.
c) Black Phosphorous:
• It is very less reactive
• Non-reactive Atmosphere + High Pressure + 473K Black Phosphorous
• It is more stable
USES:
▪ It is used in Photosynthesis, Fertilizers
▪ It is also used in Medicines & Alloys.
➢ Hydrogen(H):
• It is gaseous non-Metal.
• It is future fuel.
• Atomic No. -- 1
• It is mostly present element in the atmosphere.
• Founded by – Kavindex(1766)
• It is colourless, odourless & Transparent Gas.
• It is very light Gas in all elements & Neutral in nature.
• H2 + Air Fire/ Explosive + Water
• H2 + S H2S(Hydrogen Sulphide gas)
• H2 + 2Na 2NaH(makes Hydride)
• Proton=1, Electron=1, Neutron =0
Isotopes of Hydrogen:
a) Protium(1H1)
▪ Mass No. -1
▪ Proton + Neutron = 1 + 0
▪ Light weight Hydrogen
b) Deuterium(1H2)
▪ Mass No. – 2
▪ Proton + Neutron = 1 + 1
▪ Deiterium + Air D 2O
3
c) Tritium(1H )
▪ Mass No. – 3
▪ Proton + Neutron = 1+ 2
▪ It is rare, Unstable &Radiothermi
USES:
▪ It is used in welding, Methyl Alcohol, Artificial petrol
▪ It is also used in Atomic Fuel & Future Fuel
➢ Oxygen(O):
• It is colourless, odourless and tasteless in nature
• It is minute soluble in water
• It is neutral in Nature(pH-7)
• It is combustible in nature.
• Metal + Oxygen Metal Oxides
USES:
▪ It is used in respiration, welding & Dynamites.
▪ It is used in the manufacturing of KNO3, H2SO4 & Cl2.
▪ Liquid Oxygen is also used as Fuels
➢ Ozone(O3):
• It is allotrope of Oxygen
• It is very less available and Explosive in nature.
• It is in gaseous form(Heavy than Air)
• Its smell like rotten Fish
• In Liquid form its colour is dark Blue.
• In Solid Form its Colour is Violet
• Dry Oxygen + Silent electric discharge O3
USES:
▪ It is used in cleaning of water & Air.
▪ It is used as a food preservation, Silk
▪ It is used as a bleaching agent and an insectisides
▪ It helps to protect from the ultra violet Rays of the Sun.
➢ Carbon (C)
• It is free and composite in state.
• Atomic No. -- 6
• It is found in Diamond &Graphite(Pure & Crystalline form)
• It is non-conductor of Heat & Electricity.
• Carbon(C) + Metal Carbides
• Carbon + Air CO2
• Carbon + Air CO
USES:
▪ Diamond is used in the cutting of Glass
▪ Graphite is used in the formation of Electrodes, Colours & Lead of Pencils.
▪ Graphite is used in Artificial Diamonds.
➢ Silicon(Si):
• It is crystalline and non-crystalline in nature.
• It is non- metal and semiconductor.
• It is the 2nd mostly Found non-metal on the Earth
USES:
▪ It is used in IC Chips, Glass & Cement
▪ It is also used ad Drying Agent
▪ It is used in Carbo random Diamond & Ornaments.
Chemical Properties
➢ Chemical Properties of Metals
● Alkali metals (Li, Na, K, etc.) react vigorously with water and oxygen or air.
● Mg reacts with hot water.
● Al, Fe and Zn react with steam.
● Cu, Ag, Pt, and Au do not react with water or dilute acids.
➢ Reaction of Metals with Oxygen (Burnt in Air)
A metal oxide is formed when metals are burned in the air and react with oxygen in the air. Metal
oxides are a type of basic material found in nature. They change the colour of red litmus to blue.
To avoid reactions with oxygen, moisture, and carbon dioxide in the air, sodium and potassium
metals are kept in kerosene oil.
Metal + Oxygen→ Metal oxide (basic)
● Na and K are kept immersed in kerosene oil as they react vigorously with air and catch fire.
4K(s)+O2(g)→2K2O(s) (vigorous reaction)
● Mg, Al, Zn, and Pb react slowly with air and form a protective layer that prevents corrosion.
2Mg(s)+O2(g)→2MgO(s) (Mg burns with white dazzling light)
4Al(s)+3O2(g)→2Al2O3(s)
● Silver, platinum and gold don’t burn or react with air.
➢ Basic Oxides of Metals

Metal oxides are crystalline solids that contain a metal cation and an oxide anion. They typically
react with water to form bases or with acids to form salts. MO + H2O → M(OH)2 (where M = group
2 metal). Thus, these compounds are often called basic oxides.
Some metallic oxides get dissolved in water and form alkalis. Their aqueous solution turns red
litmus blue.
Na2O(s)+H2O(l)→2NaOH(aq)
K2O(s)+H2O(l)→2KOH(aq)
➢ Amphoteric Oxides of Metals

Amphoteric oxides are metal oxides which react with both acids as well as bases to form salt and
water.
For example – Al2O3, ZnO, PbO, SnO
Al2O3(s)+6HCl(aq)→2AlCl3(aq)+3H2O(l)
Al2O3(s)+2NaOH(aq)→2NaAlO2(aq)+H2O(l)
ZnO(s)+2HCl(aq)→ZnCl2(aq)+H2O(l)
ZnO(s)+2NaOH(aq)→Na2ZnO2(aq)+H2O(l)
Reactivity Series
The reactivity series of metals, also known as the activity series, refers to the arrangement of
metals in the descending order of their reactivities.
The below table illustrates the reactivity of metals from high order to low order.
Symbol Element
K Potassium ( Highly Active Metal)
Ba Barium
Ca Calcium
Na Sodium
Mg Magnesium
Al Aluminium
Zn Zinc
Fe Iron
Ni Nickel
Sn Tin
Pb Lead
H Hydrogen
Cu Copper
Hg Mercury
Ag Silver
Au Gold
Pt Platinum
➢ Roasting
Converts sulphide ores into oxides on heating strongly in the presence of excess air.
It also removes volatile impurities.
2ZnS(s)+3O2(g)+Heat→2ZnO(s)+2SO2(g)
➢ Calcination
Converts carbonate and hydrated ores into oxides on heating strongly in the presence of limited
air. It also removes volatile impurities.
ZnCO3(s)+heat→ZnO(s)+CO2(g)
CaCO3(s)+heat→CaO(s)+CO2(g)
Al2O3.2H2O(s)+heat→2Al2O3(s)+2H2O(l)
2Fe2O3.3H2O(s)+heat→2Fe2O3(s)+3H2O(l)
Reaction of Metals with Water or Steam

Aluminium, iron, and zinc are metals that do not react with either cold or hot water. However, when
they come into contact with steam, they produce metal oxide and hydrogen. Lead, copper, silver,
and gold are metals that do not react with water.
Metal+Water→Metalhydroxide or Metaloxide+Hydrogen
2Na+2H2O(cold)→2NaOH+H2+heat
Ca+2H2O(cold)→Ca(OH)2+H2
Mg+2H2O(hot)→Mg(OH)2+H2
2Al+3H2O(steam)→Al2O3+3H2
Zn+H2O(steam)→ZnO+H2
3Fe+4H2O(steam)→Fe3O4+4H2
Reaction of Metals with Acid

When a metal is immersed in acid, it becomes smaller and smaller as the chemical process consu
mes it. Gas bubbles can also be detected at the same moment. Hydrogen gas bubbles are formed
as a result of the reaction. Because hydrogen is combustible, this can be demonstrated with a bur
ning splint.
Metal+diluteacid→Salt+Hydrogengas
2Na(s)+2HCl(dilute)→2NaCl(aq)+H2(g)
2K(s)+H2SO4(dilute)→K2SO4(aq)+H2(g)
Only Mg and Mn, react with very dilute nitric acid to liberate hydrogen gas.
Mg(s)+2HNO3(dilute)→Mg(NO3)2(aq)+H2(g)
Mn(s)+2HNO3(dilute)→Mn(NO3)2(aq)+H2(g)
➢ Displacement Reaction
A more reactive element displaces a less reactive element from its compound or solution.
How Do Metals React with the Solution of Other Metal Salts

A more reactive metal can displace a less reactive metal from its salt solution in a displacement
reaction. Metal displacement reaction is a common name for this reaction. The reactivity of
certain regularly used metals has been ordered in decreasing order. This is referred to as the
reactivity or activity series.
Metal A+Salt of metal B → Salt of metal A + Metal B
Fe(s)+CuSO4(aq)→FeSO4(aq)+Cu(s)
Cu(s)+2AgNO3(aq)→Cu(NO3)(aq)+2Ag(s)
• It’s a component of thermite welding. Aluminium displaces iron from its oxide in this
process.
• It is used in the production of steel. In which iron is displaced from its oxide by carbon.
• It is mostly utilised in metal extraction.
Reaction of Metals with Bases

The base has a bitter taste and a slippery texture. A base dissolved in water is called an alkali.
When chemically reacting with acids, such compounds produce salts. Bases are known to turn
blue on red litmus paper.
Base+metal→salt+hydrogen
2NaOH(aq)+Zn(s) → Na2ZnO2(aq)+H2(g)
2NaOH(aq)+2Al(s)+2H2O(l) → 2NaAlO2(aq)+2H2(g)
Extraction of Metals and Non-Metals

Applications of Displacement Reaction
Uses of displacement reaction
1. Extraction of metals
2. Manufacturing of steel
3. Thermite reaction: Al(s)+Fe2O3(s) → Al2O3+Fe(molten)
The thermite reaction is used in the welding of railway tracks, cracked machine parts, etc.
➢ Occurrence of Metals
Most elements, especially metals, occur in nature in a combined state with other elements. All
these compounds of metals are known as minerals. But out of them, only a few are viable sources
of that metal. Such sources are called ores.
Au, Pt – exists in the native or free state.
➢ Extraction of Metals
The process of extracting metal ores buried deep underground is called Mining. The metal ores
are found in the earth’s crust in varying abundance. The extraction of metals from ores is what
allows us to use the minerals in the ground! The ores are very different from the finished metals
that we see in buildings and bridges. Ores consist of the desired metal compound and the
impurities and earthly substances called Gangue.
Metals of high reactivity – Na, K, Mg, Al.
Metals of medium reactivity – Fe, Zn, Pb, Sn.
Metals of low reactivity – Cu, Ag, Hg
Enrichment of Ores
It means the removal of impurities or gangue from ore through various physical and chemical
processes. The technique used for a particular ore depends on the difference in the properties of
the ore and the gangue.
In chemistry, a gangue is an undesirable substance or impurity that surrounds the mineral in an
ore deposit, such as sand, rock, or any other material. When it comes to mining, this mineral is
very frequent.
➢ Extracting Metals Low in Reactivity Series

By self-reduction- when the sulphide ores of less electropositive metals like Hg, Pb, Cu etc., are
heated in air, a part of the ore gets converted to oxide, which then reacts with the remaining
sulphide ore to give the crude metal and sulphur dioxide. In this process, no external reducing
agent is used.
1. 2HgS(Cinnabar)+3O2(g)+heat→2HgO(crude metal)+2SO2(g)
2HgO(s)+heat→2Hg(l)+O2(g)
2. Cu2S(Copper pyrite)+3O2(g)+heat→2Cu2O(s)+2SO2(g)
2Cu2O(s)+Cu2S(s)+heat→6Cu(crude metal)+SO2(g)
3. 2PbS(Galena)+3O2(g)+heat→2PbO(s)+2SO2(g)
PbS(s)+2PbO(s)→2Pb(crudemetal)+SO2(g)
➢ Extracting Metals in the Middle of Reactivity Series

Calcination is a process in which ore is heated in the absence of air, or air might be supplied in
limited quantity. Roasting involves heating ore lower than its melting point in the presence of air or
oxygen. Calcination involves the thermal decomposition of carbonate ores.
Smelting – it involves heating the roasted or calcined ore (metal oxide) to a high temperature with
a suitable reducing agent. The crude metal is obtained in its molten state.
Fe2O3+3C(coke)→2Fe+3CO2
Aluminothermic reaction – also known as the Goldschmidt reaction, is a highly exothermic
reaction in which metal oxides, usually of Fe and Cr, are heated to a high temperature with
aluminium.
Fe2O3+2Al→Al2O3+2Fe+heat
Cr2O3+2Al→Al2O3+2Cr+heat
Extraction of Metals Towards the Top of the Reactivity Series
Electrolytic reduction:
1. Down’s process: Molten NaCl is electrolysed in a special apparatus.
At the cathode (reduction):
Na+(molten)+e−→Na(s)
Metal is deposited.
At the anode (oxidation):
2Cl−(molten)→Cl2(g)+2e–
Chlorine gas is liberated.
2. Hall’s process:A mixture of molten alumina and a fluoride solvent, usually cryolite (Na3AlF6),
is electrolysed.
At the cathode (reduction):
2Al3++6e–→ 2Al(s)
Metal is deposited.
At the anode (oxidation):
6O2– → 3O2(g)+12e–
Oxygen gas is liberated.
The metals at the top of the reactivity series are highly reactive. They cannot be obtained from
their compounds by heating with carbon, because these metals have more affinity for oxygen than
carbon. Hence, for the extraction of such metals electrolytic reduction method is used.
➢ Refining of Metals
Refining of metals – removing impurities or gangue from crude metal. It is the last step in
metallurgy and is based on the difference between the properties of metal and gangue.
Electrolytic Refining
Metals like copper, zinc, nickel, silver, tin, gold etc., are refined electrolytically.
Anode: impure or crude metal
Cathode: a thin strip of pure metal
Electrolyte: aqueous solution of metal salt
From anode (oxidation): metal ions are released into the solution
At cathode (reduction): the equivalent amount of metal from the solution is deposited
Impurities deposit at the bottom of the anode.
How Do Metals and Non-Metals React?

Metals lose valence electron(s) and form cations.
Non-metals gain those electrons in their valence shell and form anions.
The cation and the anion are attracted to each other by strong electrostatic force, thus forming an
ionic bond.
For example: In calcium chloride, the ionic bond is formed by opposite-charged calcium and
chloride ions.
The calcium atom loses 2 electrons and attains the electronic configuration of the nearest noble
gas (Ar). By doing so, it gains a net charge of +2.
The two Chlorine atoms take one electron each, thus gaining a charge of -1 (each) and attain the
electronic configuration of the nearest noble gas (Ar).
Ionic Compounds
Ionic compounds are neutral compounds that are made up of positively charged cations and
negatively charged anions. Binary ionic compounds (ionic compounds containing only two types
of elements) are named by first writing the name of the cation, then the name of the anion.
The electrostatic attractions between the opposite-charged ions hold the compound together.
Example: MgCl2, CaO, MgO, NaCl etc.
Properties of Ionic Compound

Ionic compounds
1. Are usually crystalline solids (made of ions).

2. Have high melting and boiling points.
3. Conduct electricity when in aqueous solution and when melted.
4. Are mostly soluble in water and polar solvents.
Physical Nature
Ionic solids usually exist in regular, well-defined crystal structures.
➢ Electric Conduction of Ionic Compounds

Ionic compounds conduct electricity in the molten or aqueous state when ions become free and
act as charge carriers.
In solid form, ions are strongly held by electrostatic forces of attraction and are not free to move;
hence do not conduct electricity.
For example, ionic compounds such as NaCl do not conduct electricity when solid, but when
dissolved in water or in a molten state, they will conduct electricity.
➢ Melting and Boiling Points of Ionic Compounds

In ionic compounds, the strong electrostatic forces between ions require a high amount of energy
to break. Thus, the melting point and boiling point of an ionic compound are usually very high.
➢ Solubility of Ionic Compounds

Most ionic compounds are soluble in water due to the separation of ions by water. This occurs
due to the polar nature of water.
For example, NaCl is a 3-D salt crystal composed of Na+ and Cl− ions bound together through
electrostatic forces of attraction. When a crystal of NaCl comes into contact with water, the
partially positive-charged ends of water molecules interact with the Cl− ions, while the
negatively charged end of the water molecules interacts with the Na+ ions. This ion-dipole
interaction between ions and water molecules assists in the breaking of the strong electrostatic
forces of attraction within the crystal and, ultimately, in the solubility of the crystal.
Alloys
Alloys are homogeneous mixtures of a metal with other metals or nonmetals. Alloy formation
enhances the desirable properties of the material, such as hardness, tensile strength and
resistance to corrosion.
Examples of a few alloys:
Brass: copper and zinc
Bronze: copper and tin
Solder: lead and tin
Amalgam: mercury and other metal
➢ Corrosion
Gradual deterioration of a material, usually a metal, by the action of moisture, air or chemicals in
the surrounding environment.
Rusting:
4Fe(s)+3O2(from air)+xH2O(moisture)→2Fe2O3. xH2O(rust)
Corrosion of copper:
Cu(s)+H2O(moisture)+CO2(from air)→CuCO3.Cu(OH)2(green)
Corrosion of silver:
Ag(s)+H2S(from air)→Ag2S(black)+H2(g)
Prevention of Corrosion
Prevention:
1. Coating with paints or oil or grease: The application of paint or oil or grease on metal surfaces
keep out air and moisture.
2. Alloying: Alloyed metal is more resistant to corrosion. Example: stainless steel.
3. Galvanization: This is a process of coating molten zinc on iron articles. Zinc forms a protective
layer and prevents corrosion.
4. Electroplating: It is a method of coating one metal with another by the use of an electric current.
This method not only lends protection but also enhances the metallic appearance.
Examples: silver plating, and nickel plating.
5. Sacrificial protection: Magnesium is more reactive than iron. When it is coated on articles made
of iron or steel, it acts as the cathode undergoes a reaction (sacrifice) instead of iron and protects
the articles.
Chemical substances containing carbon are referred to as carbon compounds. Except for
hydrogen, there are more carbon compounds than any other chemical element. Compounds of
carbon with double bonds and triple bonds are called unsaturated compounds, while those with
carbon-carbon single bonds are called saturated compounds.
Difficulty of Carbon to Form a Stable Ion
To achieve the electronic configuration of the nearest noble gas, He, if the carbon atom loses four
of its valence electrons, a huge amount of energy is involved. C4+ ion hence formed, will be highly
unstable due to the presence of six protons and two electrons.
If the carbon atom gains four electrons to achieve the nearest electronic configuration of the
noble gas, Ne, C4− ion will be formed. But again, a huge amount of energy is required. Moreover, in
C4+ ions it is difficult for 6 protons to hold 10 electrons. Hence, to satisfy its tetravalency, carbon
shares all four of its valence electrons and forms covalent bonds.
➢ Ionic Bond
Ionic bonding involves the transfer of valence electron/s, primarily between a metal and a
nonmetal. The electrostatic attractions between the oppositely charged ions hold the compound
together.
Ionic compounds:
1. Are usually crystalline solids (made of ions)

2. Have high melting and boiling points
3. Conduct electricity when melted
4. Are mostly soluble in water and polar solvents
➢ Covalent Bond: A covalent bond is formed when pairs of electrons are shared
between two atoms. It is primarily formed between two same nonmetallic atoms or
between nonmetallic atoms with similar electronegativity.
➢ Lewis Dot Structure:Lewis structures are also known as Lewis dot structures or
electron dot structures.
These are basically diagrams with the element’s symbol in the centre. The dots around it
represent the valence electrons of the element.
➢ Covalent Bonding in H , N 2 2 and O2

• Formation of a single bond in a hydrogen molecule:
Each hydrogen atom has a single electron in the valence shell. It requires one more to
acquire the nearest noble gas configuration (He).
Therefore, both the atoms share one electron each and form a single bond.
• Formation of a double bond in an oxygen molecule:

Each oxygen atom has six electrons in the valence shell (2, 6). It requires two electrons to
acquire the nearest noble gas configuration (Ne).
Therefore, both the atoms share two electrons each and form a double bond.
• Formation of a triple bond in a nitrogen molecule:

Each nitrogen atom has five electrons in the valence shell (2, 5). It requires three electrons
to acquire the nearest noble gas configuration (Ne).
Therefore, both atoms share three electrons each and form a triple bond.
Single, Double and Triple Bonds and Their Strengths
A single bond is formed between two atoms when two electrons are shared between them, i.e.,
one electron from each participating atom.
It is depicted by a single line between the two atoms.
A double bond is formed between two atoms when four electrons are shared between them, i.e.,
one pair of electrons from each participating atom. It is depicted by double lines between the two
atoms.
A triple bond is formed between two atoms when six electrons are shared between them, i.e.,
two pairs of electrons from each participating atom. It is depicted by triple lines between the two
atoms.
➢ Bond strength:
– The bond strength of a bond is determined by the amount of energy required to break a
bond.
– The order of bond strengths when it comes to multiple bonds is: Triple bond>double
bond>single bond
– This is to signify that the energy required to break three bonds is higher than that for two
bonds or a single bond.
➢ Bond length:
– Bond length is determined by the distance between nuclei of the two atoms in a bond.
– The order of bond length for multiple bonds is: Triple bond<double bond<single bond
The distance between the nuclei of two atoms is least when they are triple bonded.
Covalent Bonding of N, O with H and Polarity

In ammonia (NH3), the three hydrogen atoms share one electron each with the nitrogen atom and
form three covalent bonds.
• Ammonia has one lone pair.

• All three N-H covalent bonds are polar in nature.
• N atom is more electronegative than the H atom. Thus, the shared pair of electrons lies
more towards N atom.
• This causes the N atom to acquire a slight negative charge and H atom a slight positive
charge.
In water (H2O), the two hydrogen atoms share one electron each with the oxygen atom and form
two covalent bonds.
• Water has two lone pairs.

• The two O-H covalent bonds are polar in nature.
• The O atom is more electronegative than the H atom. Thus, the shared pair of electrons lies
more towards O atom.
➢ This causes the O atom to acquire a slight negative charge and H atom a slight positive
charge.
➢ Covalent Bonding in Carbon: A methane molecule (CH ) is formed when four
4
electrons of carbon are shared with four hydrogen atoms, as shown below.
Why Carbon Can Form so Many Compounds

Catenation occurs most readily with carbon due to its small size, electronic configuration and
unique strength of carbon-carbon bonds. Tetravalency, catenation, and the tendency to form
multiple bonds with other atoms account for the formation of innumerable carbon compounds.
➢ Catenation: Catenation is the self-linking property of an element by which an atom

forms covalent bonds with the other atoms of the same element to form straight or
branched chains and rings of different sizes. It is shown by carbon, sulphur and silicon.
➢ S8::In its native state, sulphur shows catenation of up to 8 atoms in the form of S8 molecule.
It has a puckered ring structure.
Versatile Nature of Carbon

Tetravalency and Catenation The fact that carbon can form single, double, and triple bonds
demonstrate its versatility. It can also form chains, branching chains, and rings when joined to
other carbon atoms.
Hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, and a few additional elements make up organic molecules. Organic
compounds, on the other hand, are significantly more numerous than inorganic compounds that
do not form bonds.
Carbon is a chemical element with the atomic number 6 and the symbol C. It’s a versatile element
that can be found in a wide variety of chemical combinations. Carbon’s versatility is best
appreciated through properties like tetravalency and catenation.
• Tetravalency: Carbon has a valency of four, so it is capable of bonding with four other
atoms of carbon or atoms of some other mono-valent element.
• Catenation: The property of a carbon element due to which its atom can join one another to
form long carbon chains is called catenation.
Mp, Bp and Electrical Conductivity

Covalent compounds:
1. Are molecular compounds

2. Are gases, liquids or solids
3. Have weak intermolecular forces
4. Have low melting and boiling points
5. Are poor electrical conductors in all phases
6. Are mostly soluble in nonpolar liquids
➢ Allotropes of Carbon
– The phenomenon of the existence of the same element in different physical forms with similar
chemical properties is known as allotropy.
– Some elements like carbon, sulphur, phosphorus, etc., exhibit this phenomenon.
– Crystalline allotropes of carbon include diamond, graphite and, fullerene.
– Amorphous allotropes of carbon include coal, coke, charcoal, lamp black and gas carbon.
➢ Diamond
Diamond has a regular tetrahedral geometry. This is because each carbon is connected to four
neighbouring carbon atoms via single covalent bonds, resulting in a single unit of a crystal. These
crystal units lie in different planes and are connected to each other, resulting in a rigid three-
dimensional cubic pattern of the diamond.
Diamond:
1. Has a high density of 3.5g/cc.

2. Has a very high refractive index of 2.5.
3. Is a good conductor of heat.
4. Is a poor conductor of electricity.
➢ Graphite
In graphite, each carbon atom is bonded covalently to three other carbon atoms, leaving each
carbon atom with one free valency. This arrangement results in hexagonal rings in a single plane,
and such rings are stacked over each other through weak Van der Waals forces.
Graphite:
1. Has a density of 2.25 g/cc.

2. Has a soft and slippery feel.
3. Is a good conductor of electricity.
➢ C60
C60, also known as Buckminsterfullerene, is the very popular and stable form of the known
fullerenes.
It is the most common naturally occurring fullerene and can be found in small quantities in soot.
It consists of 60 carbon atoms arranged in 12 pentagons and 20 hexagons, like in a soccer ball.
Saturated and Unsaturated Hydrocarbons

Saturated hydrocarbons: These hydrocarbons have all carbon-carbon single bonds. These are
known as alkanes. General formula = CnH2n+2 where n = 1, 2, 3, 4.…..
Unsaturated hydrocarbons: These hydrocarbons have at least one carbon-carbon double or triple
bond.
Hydrocarbons with at least one carbon-carbon double bond are called alkenes. General formula =
CnH2n where n = 2, 3, 4…..
Hydrocarbons with at least one carbon-carbon triple bond are called alkynes. General formula =
CnH2n−2 where n = 2, 3, 4…..
Chains, Rings and Branches
Carbon chains may be in the form of straight chains, branched chains or rings.
In cyclic compounds, atoms are connected to form a ring.
➢ Structural Isomers
Compounds with the same molecular formula and different physical or chemical properties are
known as isomers and the phenomenon is known as isomerism.
The isomers that differ in the structural arrangement of atoms in their molecules are called
structural isomers and the phenomenon is known as structural isomerism.
➢ Benzene
Benzene is the simplest organic, aromatic hydrocarbon.
Physical properties: colourless liquid, pungent odour, flammable, volatile.
Structure:
Cyclic in nature with chemical formula C6H6, i.e., each carbon atom in benzene is arranged in a six-
membered ring and is bonded to only one hydrogen atom.
It includes 3 double bonds, which are separated by a single bond.
Hence, this arrangement is recognized to have conjugated double bonds and two stable
resonance structures exist for the ring.
Hydrocarbons
These are the compounds of only carbon and hydrogen.
➢ Saturated hydrocarbons:They contain only single bonds. These are also called alkanes or paraffins
and have general formula CnH2n+2 . Methane is the first member of this group.
➢ Unsaturated hydrocarbons: They have general formula CnH2n for alkene and CnH2n-2 for alkynes.
These have at least one double (=) or triple (Ξ) bond and are called alkenes and alkynes respectively.
➢ Aromatic hydrocarbons:They have ring structure with alternate double bonds and (4n+2)πe- (Huckel's
rule). e.g. benzene.
Important Hydrocarbons and their Uses

1. Methane (CH4):
• It is also known as marsh gas or damp fire.
• Natural gas contains mainly 90% methane along with ethane, propane, butane etc. Rice
agriculture is a big source of atmospheric methane.
• It is the cause of occurrence of the explosions in mines.
• It is used as a fuel gas in making carbon black
2. Biogas:
• Produced during decay of biomass in the absence of oxygen.
• Methane (75%) is the main constituent of biogas).
3. Ethane (C2H6):
• Natural gas contains approx. 10% ethane.
• Its hexachloro derivative C2CI6 is used as an artificial camphor.
4. Butane (C4H10): It is the main constituent of LPG (liquefied petroleumgas).
5. Ethylene (CH2 = CH2):
• In World war | (1914-18), it was used for the manufacturing of mustard gas (poisonous
gas).
• It is used as an anesthetic for the preservation and artificial ripening of green fruits.
6. Benzene (C6H6)
• It is the simplest aromatic hydrocarbon. It was discovered by Faraday in 1825.
• It is also used as a motor fuel under the name benzol.
7. Toluene (C6H5CH3)
• It is used as a commercial solvent in the manufacturing of explosive (TNT), drugs
(chloramines-T) and dyestuffs.
• Used in the manufacturing of saccharin and printing inks. toluene is used as antifreeze.
8. Naphthalene (C10H8):It is used for preventing moths in clothes, as an insecticide.
Halogen Derivatives of Hydrocarbons

1. Chloroform (CHCI3):
• It was discovered by Sir James Young Simpson.
• It is stored in closed dark coloured bottles completely filled because it is oxidized by air in
the presence of sunlight to an extremely poisonous gas phosgene (COCI₂).
• It reacts with conc. HNO3 and form chloropicrin (CI3C – NO2). Chloropicrin is an insecticide
and also used as poisonous gas at the time of war.
• The major use of chloroform today is in the production of the Freon refrigerant, R-22.
2. Iodoform (CHI3): It is used as an antiseptic due to liberation free Iodine.
3. Carbon tetrachloride (CCI4):used as a fire extinguishers under the name pyrene.
4. Dichloro diphenyl trichloro ethane (DDT):It was the first chlorinated organic
insecticides and originally prepared in 1873.
5. Alcohols
➢ Methyl alcohol (CH3OH):
• It is also known as wood spirit or wood naphtha.
• Methyl alcohol is poisonous in nature and when taken internally it can cause blindness and
even death.
• It is used for denaturing alcohol (methylated spirit is denatured ethyl alcohol).
➢ Ethyl alcohol (C₂H5OH):It is simply known as alcohol, spirit of wine or grain alcohol.
➢ Glycerol (CH₂OH.CHOH.CH₂OH):
• It is an important trihydric alcohol known as glycerine.
• It is sweet in taste and very hygroscopic in nature.
• It is used in the manufacturing of cosmetics and transparent soaps.
➢ Phenol (C6H5OH):It is a monohydric benzene derivative. It is commonly known as carbolic acid or
benzenol.
6. Methyl isocyanate (CH3NCO):Leakage of this gas is responsible for Bhopal gas tragedy.
Coal
• It is believed that is was formed by (carbonization).
• Different varieties of coal are anthracite (90% carbon), bituminous (70% carbon), lignite (40%
carbon) and peat (10-15% carbon).
• On heating at 1270-1675 K in the absence of air, coal decomposes and gives the following products.
• Coke is the solid residue left after the distillation.
• Coal tar It is a mixture of about 700 substances.
• Now-a-days bitumen, a petroleum product, is used in place of coal tar for metalling the roads.
• The most significant characteristics of Indian coal are its high ash content, entrained gasifires and
low sulphur content.
• The process of separation of various constituents/ fractions of petroleum is known as refining.
• Knocking -In a petrol engine, vapours of petrol and air are first compressed to a small volume and
then ignited by a spark. If the quality of petrol is not good, it leads to the pre-ignition of fuel in the
cylinder. This gives rise to a metallic sound known as knocking. Tetraethyl lead (TEL) and Benzene -
Toluene - Xylene (BTX) are common antiknock compounds.
• Octane number -The antiknocking property of petrol is measured in terms of octane number.
Higher the octane number, better is the quality of fuel. Gasoline used in automobiles has an octane
number 80 or higher while in aeroplane, it has an octane number 100 or over higher.
Fuels
➢ Producer gas: It is a mixture of carbon monoxide and nitrogen. Water gas in mixture of carbon
monoxide and hydrogen.
➢ Coal gas: Itis a mixture of hydrogen, methane, carbon monoxide, ethane, acetylene, carbon dioxide,
nitrogen and oxygen.
➢ Oil gas and petrol gas: Itis a mixture of methane, ethylene and acetylene etc., and is obtained by
cracking of kerosene.
➢ LPG (Liquefied Petroleum Gas):the mixtures of hydrocarbons such as propane, propene, n-butane,
isobutene and various butane with small amount of ethane.The major sources of LPG are natural gas.
➢ CNG (Compressed Natural Gas):It is highly compressed from of natural gas, octane rating of CNG is
130.
➢ Gasohol: It is a mixture of ethyl alcohol (10%) and petrol (90%).
Flame
It is the hot part of fire and has three parts.
• Innermost region of flame:It is black because of the presence of unburned carbon particles.
• Middle region:It is yellow luminous due to partial combustion of fuel.
• Outermost region:It is blue (non-luminous) due to complete combustion of fuel. It is the hottest part of
flame and is used by the Goldsmith to heat the gold.
Rocket Fuel
• The fuel used in rockets is called rocket propellant.
• Liquid propellants are alcohol, liquid hydrogen, liquid ammonia (NH3), kerosene oil etc.
• Solid propellants are polybutadiene and acrylic acid used along with oxidizers such as aluminium
per chlorate, nitrate or chlorate.
Functional Groups and Nomenclature

➢ Functional Groups
An atom or a group of atoms which, when present in a compound, gives specific physical and
chemical properties to it regardless of the length and nature of the carbon chain is called a
functional group.
Classification of Functional Groups

Main Functional Groups:
(i) Hydroxyl group (-OH):All organic compounds containing -OH group are known as
alcohols. For example, Methanol (CH3OH), Ethanol (CH3−CH2−OH), etc.
(ii) Aldehyde group (-CHO):All organic compounds containing -CHO group are known as
aldehydes. For example, Methanal (HCHO), Ethanal (CH3CHO), etc.
(iii) Ketone group (-C=O):All organic compounds containing (-C=O) group flanked by two alkyl
groups are known as ketones. For example, Propanone (CH3COCH3), Butanone (CH3COCH2CH3),
etc.
(iv) Carboxyl group (-COOH):All organic acids contain a carboxyl group (-COOH). Hence, they
are also called carboxylic acids.
For example, Ethanoic acid (CH3COOH), Propanoic acid (CH3CH2COOH), etc.
(v) Halogen group (F, CI, Br, I): The alkanes in which one or more than one hydrogen atom is
substituted by- X (F, CI, Br or I) are known as haloalkanes. For example, Chloromethane
(CH3Cl), Bromomethane (CH3Br), etc.
Homologous Series
Homologous series constitutes organic compounds with the same general formula, and similar
chemical characteristics but different physical properties. The adjacent members differ in their
molecular formula by −CH2.
Examples of homologous series
Methane, ethane, propane, butane, etc. are all part of the alkane homologous series.
The general formula of this series is CnH2n+2.
Methane (CH4), Ethane (CH3CH3), Propane (CH3CH2CH3), Butane (CH3CH2CH2CH3).
It can be noticed that there is a difference of −CH2 unit between each successive compound.
Nomenclature of Carbon Compounds

The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) decided on some rules for naming
carbon compounds. This was done to maintain uniformity throughout the world. Names which are
given on this basis are popularly known as IUPAC names.
➢ Physical Properties
The members of any particular family have almost identical chemical properties due to the same
functional group. Their physical properties, such as melting point, boiling point, density, etc., show
a regular gradation with the increase in molecular mass.
➢ Chemical Properties
A chemical property is a property that describes a substance’s ability to undergo a specific
chemical change. We look for a chemical shift to identify a chemical attribute. A chemical change
always results in the formation of one or more types of matter that are distinct from the matter
that existed before the change.
Combustion Reactions
Combustion means the burning of carbon or carbon-containing compounds in the presence of air
or oxygen to produce carbon dioxide, heat and light.
2CH3OH + 3O2 → 4H2O + 2CO2
For example,
Naphthalene also undergoes combustion in the presence of oxygen to afford carbon dioxide gas
and water. The chemical equation for this reaction is as follows.
12O2 + C10H8 → 4H2O + 10CO2
Flame Characteristics
Saturated hydrocarbons give a clean flame, while unsaturated hydrocarbons give a smoky flame.
In the presence of limited oxygen, even saturated hydrocarbons give smoky flame.
A black substance formed by combustion or separated from fuel during combustion, rising in fine
particles and adhering to the sides of the chimney or pipe conveying the smoke especially: the fine
powder consisting chiefly of carbon that colours smoke called soot.
➢ Oxidation
Oxidation is a chemical reaction that occurs in an atom or compound and results in the loss of
one or more electrons.
➢ Addition
The reactions in which two molecules react to form a single product having all the atoms of the
combining molecules are called addition reactions.
The hydrogenation reaction is an example of the addition reaction. In this reaction, hydrogen is
added to a double bond or a triple bond in the presence of a catalyst like nickel, palladium or
platinum.
➢ Substitution
The reaction in which an atom or group of atoms in a molecule is replaced or substituted by
different atoms or groups of atoms is called a substitution reaction. In alkanes, hydrogen atoms
are replaced by other elements.
CH4+Cl2+Sunlight → CH3Cl+HCl
Ethanol and Ethanoic Acid
Ethanol
(i) Ethanol, C2H5OH is a colourless liquid having a pleasant smell.
(ii) It boils at 351 K.
(iii) It is miscible with water in all proportions.
(iv) It is a non-conductor of electricity (it does not contain ions)
(v) It is neutral to litmus.
Uses:
1. As an antifreeze in radiators of vehicles in cold countries.
2. As a solvent in the manufacture of paints, dyes, medicines, soaps and synthetic rubber.
3. As a solvent to prepare the tincture of iodine.
How Do Alcohols Affect Human Beings?

(i) If ethanol is mixed with CH3OH and consumed, it causes serious poisoning and loss of eyesight.
(ii) It causes addiction, and damages the liver if taken in excess.
(iii) High consumption of ethanol may even cause death.
➢ Reactions of Ethanol with Sodium

Ethanol reacts with sodium to produce hydrogen gas and sodium ethoxide. This reaction supports
the acidic character of ethanol.
2C2H5OH+2Na → 2C2H5ONa+H2(↑)
➢ Elimination Reaction
An elimination reaction is a type of reaction in which two substituents are removed from a
molecule. These reactions play an important role in the preparation of alkenes.
➢ Dehydration Reaction
Ethanol reacts with concentrated sulphuric acid at 443 K to produce ethylene. This reaction is
known as dehydration of ethanol because, in this reaction, a water molecule is removed from the
ethanol molecule.
CH3CH2OH → CH2=CH2+H2O
(reaction taking place in the presence of Conc.H2SO4)
Ethanoic Acid or Acetic Acid

(i) Molecular formula: CH3COOH
(ii) It dissolves in water, alcohol and ether.
(iii) It often freezes during winter in a cold climate, and therefore, it is named glacial acetic acid.
➢ Esterification
When a carboxylic acid is refluxed with alcohol in the presence of a small quantity of conc.H2SO4, a
sweet-smelling ester is formed. This reaction of ester formation is called esterification.
When ethanol reacts with ethanoic acid in the presence of conc.H2SO4, ethyl ethanoate and water
are formed.
CH3COOH+C2H5OH → CH3COOC2H5+H2O
(reaction taking place in the presence of Conc.H2SO4)
➢ Saponification
A soap is a sodium or potassium salt of long-chain carboxylic acids (fatty acid). The soap
molecule is generally represented as RCOONa, where R = non-ionic hydrocarbon group and
−COO−Na+ ionic group. When oil or fat of vegetable or animal origin is treated with a concentrated
sodium or potassium hydroxide solution, hydrolysis of fat takes place; soap and glycerol are
formed. This alkaline hydrolysis of oils and fats is commonly known as saponification.
➢ Reaction of Ethanoic Acid with Metals and Bases

Ethanoic acid (Acetic acid) reacts with metals like sodium, zinc and magnesium to liberate
hydrogen gas.
2CH3COOH+2Na→2CH3COONa+H2(↑)
It reacts with a solution of sodium hydroxide to form sodium ethanoate and water.
CH3COOH+NaOH→CH3COONa+H2O
➢ Reaction of Ethanoic Acid with Carbonates and Bicarbonates

Carboxylic acids react with carbonates and bicarbonates with the evolution of CO2 gas. For
example, when ethanoic acid (acetic acid) reacts with sodium carbonate and sodium bicarbonate,
CO2 gas is evolved.
2CH3COOH+Na2CO3→2CH3COONa+H2O+CO2
CH3COOH+NaHCO3→CH3COONa+H2O+CO2
Soaps and Detergents

➢ Cleansing Action of Soap
When soap is added to water, the soap molecules uniquely orient themselves to form spherical
shape micelles.
The non-polar hydrophobic part or tail of the soap molecules attracts the dirt or oil part of the
fabric, while the polar hydrophilic part or head,(−COO−Na+, remains attracted to water
molecules.The agitation or scrubbing of the fabric helps the micelles to carry the oil or dirt
particles and detach them from the fibres of the fabric.
➢ Hard Water
Hard water contains salts of calcium and magnesium, principally as bicarbonates, chlorides, and
sulphates. When soap is added to hard water, calcium and magnesium ions of hard water react
with soap forming insoluble curdy white precipitates of calcium and magnesium salts of fatty
acids.
2C17H35COONa+MgCl2 → (C17H35COO)2Mg+2NaCl
2C17H35COONa+CaCl2 → (C17H35COO)2Ca+2NaCl
These precipitates stick to the fabric being washed and hence, interfere with the cleaning ability of
the soap. Therefore, a lot of soap is wasted if the water is hard.
Chemistry in Everyday Life

Synthetic Materials:The materials created by man using the natural materials, are known as synthetic
materials.
Cement
• It was discovered by an English Mason, Joseph Aspdin in 1824. He called it Portland cement
because he thought that it resembled the limestone found in Portland.
• It is a complex mixture of Calcium silicates & Aluminium silicates.
• Raw materials are limestone provides (lime), clay (provides alumina and silica), gypsum (reduces
the setting time of cement).
• When water is mixed with cement and left as such for sometime, it becomes a hard mass. This is
know as setting of cement. It is an exothermic process, therefore cement structures have to be
cooled upto 7 days by sprinkling water.
• Mortar is a mixture of cement, sand and water. It is used for plastering walls and binding bricks
and stones.
• Concrete is a mixtures of cement, sand, gravel or small pieces of stone and water. It is used for
the construction of floors.
• The structure having iron rods embedded in wet concrete, is known as reinforced concrete.
Approximate Composition of Portland cement

• Calcium oxide (CaO) : 60-70%
• Silica (SiO2): 20-25%
• Alumina (Al2O3): 5-10%
• Magnesium Oxide(MgO): 2- 5 %
• Ferric oxide(Fe2O3): 1- 2 %
• Gypsum(CaSO4.2H2O): 2-5%
• Sulphur trioxide(SO3): 0-1%
Glass (Na₂O.CaO.6SiO2)
• It is a supercooled liquid of silicates.
• Raw material used for the formation of glass are sodium carbonate, calcium carbonate and sand.
• Finely powdered mixture known as batch, is mixed with cullet (broken glass pieces) and then fused
in a tank furnace at 1673 K. After few hours, molten glass is obtained.
• Molten glass is cooled slowly and uniformly. The process of slow and uniform cooling is known as
Annealing.
• Different addition may produce different coloured glasses.
Substance used Colour of glass
Cuprous oxide Red
Cupric oxide Peacock blue
Potassium dichromate Green or Greenish yellow
Ferrous oxide Green
Ferric oxide Brown
Manganese dioxide Light pink, in excess black
Cobalt oxide Blue
Gold chloride Ruby
Cadmium Yellow
Carbon Amber colour
Millennium Oxide Orange Red
Cupric Oxide/ Ferric Oxide Black
Variety of glass and Uses

1. Soft glass:It is a mixture of sodium or calcium silicates. It is used in making window glass, Tube
light, Apparatus of chemistry Labs, mirrors and common glass wares etc.
2. Hard glass- It is a mixture of potassium and calcium silicates. It is more resistant to the action of
acids for making hard glass apparatus.
3. Flint glass:It is mainly a mixture of sodium, potassium and lead silicates. It is used in making
bulbs, Lens, Prisms, Bulbs and Optical Instruments.
4. Pyrex glass (Borosilicate glass)- It is used in making pharmaceutical containers, lab
apparatus, over ware and Luxury Utensils of Glass.
5. Quartz glass (Silica glass)- It is used in the preparation of chemical apparatus, optical
instrument and Lamps of UV Bulbs.
6. Crookes glass: It is used for making lenses for spectacles. It absorbs UV rays.
7. Photochromatic glass:On exposure to bright light, photochromatic glass darkens
temporarily. So, it is very useful as a Sun shield. In these glasses Black colour obtained because of
Silver Bromide.
8. Safety glass:The three layers are joined together by the action of heat and pressure. It does
not break easily under impact and is used in auto vehicle wind shield.
9. Xena Glass:It helps to store Chemicals in Xena Glass.
10. Optical glass-It is used for making lenses for microscope, telescope and spectacles.
11. Glass fibres:Itused as insulating material in oven, refrigerator etc.
12. Optical fibres:They are extensively used in telecommunication surgical operations etc. Optical
fibres can transmit images round corners.
13. Lead crystal glass:Lead glass has a high refractive index. So, it is used for making expensive
glass ware.
14. Etching of glass-Glass is attacked by hydrofluoric Sadd acid (H(F), therefore it is used in the
etching of glass.
CHEMICALS IN AGRICULTURE
Fertilizers
• Urea is the best fertilizer as it leaves only carbon dioxide after ammonia, has been assimilated by
plants.
• It has 46.6% Nitrogen and it does not alter the pH of the soil.
• Mixture of Ca(CN)2 and C is known as nitrolin. Commercially, calcium nitrate is known as Norwegian
saltpetre.
• The mixture of nitrogenous, phosphatic and potash fertilizers in suitable amounts, is called NPK
fertilizers.
Pesticides
• Pesticides are the chemicals which are applied to crops, e.g: DDT and malathion.
Difethialone
• Vitamin K has been suggested and successfully used, as antidote for pets or humans accidentally or
intentionally exposed to anticoagulant poisons.
Chemicals in medicines
Analgesics (Pain relievers)
• These reduce pain. Aspirin and paracetamol are non-narcotic analgesics. Aspirin reduces fever,
prevents platelet coagulation.
Narcotic analgesicsare chiefly used for the relief of post operative pain, cardiac pain and pains of
terminal cancer and in child birth.
SOME COMMON ELEMENTS & COMPOUNDS

1. Carbon:
▪ Carbon exhibits allotropy and shows maximum catenation.
▪ Carbon occurs both in free state as diamond, coal etc. and also in the combined form as CO . 2
▪ Diamond is one of the allotropic forms of carbon and is the purest form of natural carbon. It is the
hardest natural substance.
▪ Graphite is also an allotropic form of carbon, which is very soft and slippery. Graphite are prepared
artificially by Acheson process.
▪ Fullerene (C60) looks like a soccer ball. It contains 20 six membered and 12-five membered rings of
carbon atoms.
▪ Graphene is an allotrope of carbon. It is a strong substance and used as a conducting material for
touch screen, LCD and LED.
Compounds of Carbon
➢ Carbon monoxide (CO)
▪ Carbon monoxide (CO) combines with haemoglobin to form carboxyhaemoglobin which is not able
to absorb oxygen and as a result of this, suffocation takes place (Asphyxi(a).
▪ The death of persons in closed rooms with wood, coal or coke fires and in closed bathrooms with gas
geyser is due to the formation of carbon monoxide.
➢ Carbon dioxide (CO2)
▪ 0.03-0.05 percent in atmosphere.
▪ Solid CO2 is known as dry ice. It is used in refrigerators under the name drikold. It is used in
transport of perishable food materials as it provides cold as well as the inert atmosphere.
➢ Carbides
▪ They are the compounds of carbon with metals or electronegative elements.
▪ Destructive distillation of coal gives products like coal gas, gas carbon, coal tar and ammonical
liquor.
▪ Lamp Black is also known as Soot.
2. Nitrogen:
▪ Nitrogen is a neutral gas and is neither combustible nor a supporter of combustion.
▪ In air - 79% of Nitrogen is present (by volume). In combined state, nitrogen is found as nitrates
(Chile) saltpetre-sodium nitrate (NaNO3), Indian saltpetre --potassium nitrate (KNO3)
Compounds of Nitrogen
➢ Ammonia
▪ It is prepared from nitrogen and hydrogen by Haber's process. It has pungent odour.
▪ Ammonia is used in manufacturing fertilizers and explosives etc.
▪ Nitrogen fixation involves the fixation of atmospheric nitrogen into nitrate by lightning and by
nitrogen fixing bacteria called Rhizobia.
3. Oxygen:
▪ Oxygen is an important constituent of atmosphere (21% by volume). Supporter of combustion.
▪ Liquid oxygen mixed with freshly divided carbon, is used in place of dynamite in coal mining.
▪ Ozone(O ) It protects the life on the earth by not allowing UV rays to reach the Earth. The
3
common refrigerants, chlorofluorocarbons deplete this ozone layer.
▪ Its bleaching action is due to its oxidizing action.
▪ Ozone is also used as a germicide and disinfectant, for sterilizing water.
4. Phosphorus (P):
▪ It is highly reactive non-metal, so it occurs only in combined state.
▪ Phosphorus is an essential constituent of bones, teeth, blood and nerve tissues. Bone ash
contains about 80% of phosphorus.
5. Sulphur (S):
▪ It occurs in free state in volcanic region.
▪ Rhombic sulphur is the most stable form at ordinary temperature and all other forms gradually
change into this form.
Compounds of Sulphur
▪ Sulphuric acid is also known as oil of vitriol or king of chemicals. It has a great affinity for water and thus it
acts as a powerful dehydrating agent. Corrosive action of sulphuric is due to its dehydrating action.
▪ Hypo (Sodium thiosulphate) It is mainly used in photography as a fixing agent. It is used to remove
undecomposed silver halide on photographic paper or film.
6. Halogens:
Halogens are highly reactive elements and therefore, they do not exist in free state but exist only in
combined form. Halogens have highest electron affinity so they act as strong oxidizing agent. Their
oxidizing power decreases from fluorine to iodine.
➢ Chlorine:
▪ Chlorine was first discovered by Scheele (1774)
▪ Chlorine is used as a germicide, disinfectant, oxidizing agent, bleaching agent in paper and textile
industry.
▪ Chlorine being an acidic gas turns moist blue litmus paper to red and then bleaches it.
➢ Iodine (I2)
▪ Chile saltpeter or caliche contains iodine as sodium iodate (5-20%).
▪ It turns starch solution blue. Solution of KI/ I2, is used in the treatment of goiter. It is used as an
antiseptic as tincture of iodine.
7. Noble Gases
▪ Helium (H(e), Neon (N(e), Argon (Ar), Krypton (Kr), Xenon (X(e) and Radon (Rn) are known as
inert gases or noble gases or rare gases.
▪ These elements have completely filled valence shell.
▪ It atmosphere, argon is most abundant noble gas but in universe, helium is most abundant gas.
▪ Natural gas in the most important source of helium.
▪ The mixture of helium and oxygen is used for artificial breathing of asthama patients.
▪ 85% helium + 15% hydrogen is used for filling in balloons and airships.
▪ Mixture of helium and oxygen is used for respiration by sea divers.
▪ Helium is used as pressuring agent in rockets to expel liquid oxygen and liquid hydrogen.
▪ Xe is also known as stranger gas and Xe-Kr is used in high intensity photographic flash tubes.
▪ Radon is used in the preparation of ointment for the treatment of cancer.
Polymerization
• Polymers are defined as high molecular mass macromolecules, which consist of repeating structural units
derived from the corresponding monomers.
• Polymers occur in nature also. Cotton, for example, is a polymer called cellulose. Cellulose is made up of a
large number of glucose units.
• On the basis of intermolecular forces Polymers are classified as:
1) Elastomers- rubber, buna-S, buna-N, neoprene etc
2) Fibres - polyamides (nylon 6, 6), polyesters (Terylene),etc.
3) Thermoplastic polymers - Such plastic which gets deformed easily on heating and can be bent easily
are known as thermoplastics. Polythene and PVC, Polythene, Polystyrene, Polyvinyls, etc.
4) Thermosetting Polymers - some plastics which when moulded once, can not be softened by heating.
These are called thermosetting plastics.eg: bakelite, melamine etc.
➢ Few important polymers are:
A. Polythene:
• Low density polythene - polymerisation of ethene under high pressure in the presence of
traces of dioxygen or a peroxide initiator (catalyst).
• High density Polythene - polymerisation of ethene in the presence of a catalyst such as
triethylaluminium and titanium tetrachloride (Ziegler-Natta catalyst).
B. Polytetrafluoroethene (Teflon)-Teflon is manufactured by heating tetrafluoroethene with a
free radical or persulphate catalyst at high pressures.
C. Polyacrylonitrile -polymer of acrylonitrile in presence of a peroxide catalyst.
Condensation Polymerisation
➢ Polyamides - possess amide linkages
▪ Nylon 6, 6 - prepared by the condensation polymerization of hexamethylenediamine with adipic
acid under high pressure and at high temperature
▪ Nylon 6- obtained by heating caprolactum with water at a high temperature.
➢ Polyesters- polycondensation products of dicarboxylic acids and diols. Polyester is another synthetic
fibre. Fabric made from this fibre does not get wrinkled easily. It remains crisp and is easy to wash. So, it is
quite suitable for making dress material.
Eg: Terylene is the best known example of polyesters. It is prepared by ethylene glycol and terephthalic acid.
It can be drawn into very fine fibres that can be woven like any other yarn.
➢ Phenol - formaldehyde polymer (Bakelite and related polymers)
Prepared by the condensation reaction of phenol with formaldehyde in the presence of either an acid or a
base catalyst.
The initial product could be a linear product - Novolac used in paints. Novolac on heating with formaldehyde
undergoes cross linking to form an infusible solid mass called bakelite. It is used for making combs,
phonograph records, electrical switches and handles of various utensils. Eg. Melamine - Melamine
formaldehyde polymer is formed by the condensation polymerisation of melamine and formaldehyde.
Melamine is a versatile material. It resists fire and can tolerate heat better than other plastics. It is used for
making floor tiles, kitchenware and fabrics which resist fire. It is used in the manufacture of unbreakable
crockery.
Copolymerisation
➢ Natural rubber- Natural rubber may be considered as a linear polymer of isoprene (2-methyl-1, 3-
butadien(e) and is also called as cis-1, 4-polyisoprene.
➢ Vulcanisation of rubber-This process consists of heating a mixture of raw rubber with sulphur
and an appropriate additive at a temperature range between 373 K to 415 K so that rubber gets stiffened.
Synthetic Rubbers
1) Neoprene- by the free radical polymerisation of chloroprene.
2) Rayon - rayon or artificial silk. Although rayon is obtained from a natural source, wood pulp, yet it is a man-
made fibre.
3) Nylon - Nylon is also used for making parachutes and ropes for rock climbing. A nylon thread is
actually stronger than a steel wire.
CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATION

➢ Physical Change:The change that only affect physical properties, but the chemical
compositions remains unchanged, are called physical change.
• These can be reversed by changing the conditions of temperature and pressure, boiling,
cutting of trees, dissolving common salt in water burning of wax.
➢ Chemical Change:The change which affect the composition as well as chemical properties of
matter and result in the formation of a new substance is called a chemical change.
• Chemical changes are generally irreversible. Some examples of chemical changes are
burning of candle (gases), photosynthesis, ripening of fruits, electrolysis of water.
• A chemical reaction involves bond breaking or bond formation between any two atoms to
produce new substances.
Laws of Chemical Combination -There are three laws of Chemical combination.

1. Law of conservation of mass:This law was stated by Lavoisier in 1744. It states that "In all
physical and chemical changes, the total mass of reactants is equal to total mass of products."
2. Law of constant proportions (or constant composition):This law was first stated by Proust
in 1797. According to the law "a chemical compound is always found to be made up of the same
elements combined together in the same proportions by weight" e.g. the ratio of hydrogen and
oxygen in pure water is always 1 : 8 by weight. This law is also called law of definite proportions.
3. Law of multiple proportions:This law was given by John Dalton (1803) and states that "when
two elements combine to form two or more compounds, the different mass of one of the elements
and the fixed mass of the one with which it combines always form a whole number ratio". This law
explains the concept of formation of more than one compound by two elements.
Types of Chemical Reactions.

➢ Exothermic Reactions:Reactions in which heat is released along with the formation of
products, are called exothermic reactions.
➢ Endothermic Reactions:Burning of fuel is an example of exothermic reaction. Reactions in
which heat is absorbed, are known as endothermic reactions.
Oxidation
• Oxidation is removal of electrons.
• Oxidation means: addition of oxygen and removal of hydrogen.
Reduction
• Reduction is the addition of electrons.
• Reductions means: Removal of oxygen and Addition of hydrogen.
Oxidizing agent
• The substance that causes oxidation is called the oxidizing agent.
• Acceptors of electrons.
• It is a substance which removes the electron from an atom.
• It brings about oxidation.
Reducing agent
• The substance that causes reduction is called the reducing agent.
• Donors of electrons.
• It is a substance which adds electrons to an atom.
• It brings about reduction.
➢ REDOX REACTION:A reaction which involves oxidation and reduction occurring

simultaneously together are called redox reaction. Photosynthesis in plants digestion of food in
animals; dry and wet batteries and corrosion of metals are diverse examples of oxidation and
reduction reactions.
Electrolysis
• Electrolysis is carried out in an electrolytic cell.
• A simple electrolytic cell consists of two copper strips dipping in an aqueous solution of copper
sulphate.
• On applying DC voltage to the two electrodes, copper metal is deposited on cathode and copper is
dissolved at anode.
• Used In the purification of impure metals.
• In the extraction of metals The blocks used in typing industries are prepared by electrolysis.
• Steel is coated with zinc metal during the process of galvanization.
Batteries
These convert chemical energy into electrical energy. Mainly two types of batteries are used, i.e. primary
and secondary.
Primary Batteries
In the primary batteries, reaction occurs only once and after a period of time battery becomes
dead.
• Dry Cell or Leclanche Cell:It consists of a zinc container that acts as anode and the cathode
is a carbon (graphite) rod surrounded by powdered manganese dioxide and carbon.
A moist paste of ammonium chloride (NH,CI) and zinc chloride (ZnCl2) is used as an electrolyte. Dry
cell is commonly used in our transistors and clocks.
• Mercury Cell:It is commonly used in low current devices such as hearing aids, watches etc.
The electrolyte is a past of potassium hydroxide (KOH) and zinc oxide (ZnO).
Secondary Batteries
• Lead Storage Battery
It consists of a lead as anode and a grid of lead packed with lead dioxide (PbO 2) as cathode.
A 38% solution of sulphuric acid is used as an electrolyte. On charging the battery, the reaction is
reversed and lead sulphate gives lead on anode and cathode is converted into lead dioxide
respectively.
• Nickel Cadmium Cell
It has longer life that the lead storage cell. It consists of a cadmium as anode and nickel dioxide as
cathode. The electrolyte is a potassium hydroxide (KOH) solution.
• Fuel Cells
Fuel cells convert energy from the combustion of fuels such as hydrogen, carbon monoxide,
methane directly into electrical energy
A fuel cell with hydrogen and oxygen has been used for electric power in Apollo Space Programme.
Corrosion
• When iron is exposed to moist air for a long period of time, its surface acquires a coating of brown
flaky substance called rust.
• Rust is mainly hydrated iron (III) oxide (Fe2O3.xH2O).
• In corrosion, a metal is oxidized by the loss of electrons to oxygen and form oxide.
• The rusting of iron can be prevented by painting, oiling and greasing, galvanizing (by coating iron
objects with zin(c), chrome plating etc.
Catalysis
• A catalyst is a substance which alter the rate of reaction.
• The catalyst itself does not alter during the reaction.
• The phenomena in which the rate of reaction is altered by the presence of a substance (catalyst) is
known as catalysis.
• Catalysts are specific in their action.
• A catalyst does not change the equilibrium state of a reversible reaction, only brings it quickly.
• The main function of a catalyst in a reaction is to decrease the activation energy
Applications of Catalysts in Industrial Processes

• Haber process for ammonia-- Iron is used as a catalyst and molybdenum is used as a promoter of
catalyst iron.
• Contact process for Sulphuric acid--- Vanadium pentoxide is used as a catalyst.
• Ostwald process for Nitric acid---- Platinum gauze is used as a catalyst.
• Deacon process for Chlorine ----- Cupric chloride is used as a catalyst.
• Synthesis of petrol ------ Nickel, iron, cobalt and alumina is used as a catalyst.
Chemical Bonding
➢ Chemical Bonding
Constituents (atoms, molecules or ions) of different elements except noble gases, do not have complete
octet so they combine with other constituent atoms by chemical bonds to achieve complete (stable) octet.
The process of their combination is called chemical bonding. Chemical bonding depends upon the valency of
atoms.
Types of Chemical Bond

They are divided in the following types depending upon the mode electron transferred or shared electrons orforces
of attraction
• Electrovalent or ionic bond

• Covalent bond
• Coordinate or dative covalent bond
• Van der Waal's forces
• Hydrogen bond
➢ Electrovalent Bond
• The bond formed by the transfer of electrons from one atom to another is called electrovalent bond
and the compound is called electrovalent compound or ionic compound.
• These bonds are formed between metals and non-metals.
• These conduct electricity when dissolved in water and also soluble in water. These are insoluble in
organic solvents like alcohol etc.
Some Electrovalent Compounds (Ionic Compounds)
Name Formula Ions Present

Aluminium Oxide Al2O3 Al3+ & O2-
Ammonium Chloride NH4Cl NH4+& Cl-
Calcium Chloride CaCl2 Ca2+ & Cl-
➢ Covalent Bond
• The bond is formed by the sharing of electrons between two atoms of same (or different) elements,
is called covalent bond.
• Covalent bond may be single, double or triple depends upon the number of sharing pairs of
electrons.
• Covalent compounds are usually liquids or gases having low melting point and boiling point. These
do not conduct electricity and are insoluble in water but dissolve in organic solvent.
Some Covalent Compounds

Name Formula Element's part
Alcohol (Ethanol) C₂H₂OH C, H and O
Ammonia NH3 N and H
Acetylene (Ethyne) C₂H₂ Cand H
➢ Coordinate or Dative Bond

• The bond is formed by one sided sharing of one pair of electrons between two atoms. The necessary
condition for the formation of coordinate bond is that octet of one atom should be complete, having
at least one lone pair of electrons and other atom should have a deficiency of at least one pair of
electrons.
• The atom having complete octet which provides the electron pair for sharing, is known as donor.
• The other atom which accept the electron pair, is called the acceptor.
Bonding between A and B is predominantly
✓ lonic if there is large difference in electronegativity.
✓ Covalent if both A and B have approximately same value of electronegativity.
✓ Coordinate if lone pair on A (or (B) is donated to electron deficient B or A.
Compounds Containing Ionic and Covalent Bonds
Name Formula
Potassium cyanide KCN
Sodium hydroxide NaOH
Calcium carbonate CaCO3
Compounds Containing Covalent and Coordinate Bonds

Name Formula
Carbon monoxide CO
Ozone O3
Dinitrogen oxide N₂O
Dinitrogen trioxide N₂O3
Nitric acid HNO3
Compounds Containing Electrovalent, Covalent and Coordinate Bonds
Name Formula
Ammonium chloride NH4Cl
Ammonium bromide NH4Br
➢ Hydrogen Bond
• The electrostatic force of attraction between hydrogen atom (which is covalently bonded to a highly
electronegative atom) and any other electronegative atom which is present in the same or different
molecules, is known as hydrogen bond.
• It is maximum in the solid state and minimum in the gaseous state.
• Intermolecular H-bonding (e.g. HF, water (H2O) molecule) It occurs between different molecules of a
compound and results in increasing solubility in water and high boiling point.
➢ Intramolecular H-bonding
It occurs within different parts of a same molecule and results in decreasing solubility in water and low
boiling point. (e.g. o-nitrophenol)
➢ Van der Waals' Forces

The ability of geckos (lizard) which can hang on a glass surface using only one toe to climb on sheer surfaces
had been attributed to the Van der Waals forces between these surfaces and their foot-pads.
ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTION
➢ Atmospheric pollution
• The substance which causes pollution is known as pollutant.
• Pollutants are of two types
➢ Primary pollutants: persist in the environment in the form, they are produced, e.g. sulphur dioxide
(SO2), nitrogen dioxide (NO₂) etc.
➢ Secondary pollutantsare the products of reaction of primary pollutants, e.g.peroxyacetye nitrate

(PAN), ozone(O3) aldehyde etc.
Major Gaseous Air Pollutants

Major gaseous air pollutants are oxides of sulphur, nitrogen, carbon and hydrocarbons.
➢ Sulphur dioxide (SO2)

• It is highly toxic for both animals and plants, bronchitis, asthma, emphysema.
• It also causes eye and throat irritation and breathlessness.
• Sulphur dioxide reduces the rate of formation of chloroplast and thus, causes chlorosis. SO2 is highly
corrosive and damage buildings, marbles (Taj Mahal) and textiles.
• SO2 is oxidized to SO3 which reacts with water to give H₂SO4 . H₂SO4 remains suspended in the air as
droplets or come down in the form of acid rain.
➢ Oxides of nitrogen
• Among the oxides of nitrogen, nitric oxide (NO), a colourless, odourless gas and nitrogen dioxide
(NO2), a brown gas with pungent odour act as tropospheric pollutants.
• NO2 is highly toxic for living tissues causes leaf fall. It is a corrosive oxide and helps in the formation
of smog.
• In the presence of oxygen, NO2 reacts with water or moisture and produces nitric acid (HNO3) which
is an important factor for making acid rain.
➢ Carbon monoxide (CO)

• From more stable carboxyhaemoglobin complex with haemoglobin due to which the delivery of
oxygen to the organs and tissues is blocked.
➢ Hydrocarbons
Out of the hydrocarbons, methane (CH4)is the most abundant hydrocarbon pollutant. Higher concentrations
of hydrocarbons given carcinogenic effect, i.e. are cancer producing. They cause ageing of plants, breakdown
of plant tissues and shedding of leaves.
Consequences of Atmospheric Pollution
➢ Green House Effect:Green house gases such as carbon dioxide, methane and water vapours trap the
heat radiated from Earth. This leads to an increase in Earth's temperature. This heating up of Earth and its
objects due to the trapping of infrared radiation by green house gases in the atmosphere, is called green
house effect.
➢ Global Warming:Green house effect is very essential for the existence of life because in its absence,
Earth would be converted into extremely cold planet. When concentration of green house gases increases,
green house effect also increases. This is known as global warming.
➢ Acid rain:It is caused by the presence of oxides of nitrogen and sulphur in the air. These oxides dissolve in
rain water and from nitric acid and sulphuric acid respectively. The rain carrying acids, is called acid rain.
➢ Smog:It is two types: Classical smog & Photochemical smog

• Classical smog :These occur in cool, humid climate. Sulphur dioxide (SO2) and particulate matter
from fuel combustion are the main components of classical smog.
• Photochemical smog:These occur in warm, dry and sunny climate. It consists of a mixture of
primary pollutants (nitrogen oxides and carbon monoxides) and secondary pollutants (ozone,
formaldehyde).
Peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN) and aldehydes present in smog causes irritation in eyes. PAN has the
highest toxicity to plants. It attacks younger leaves and causes bronzing and glazing of their surfaces.
➢ Stratospheric Pollution: In stratosphere, ozone layer absorbs the ultraviolet radiation of the Sun
which are harmful to living organisms.
➢ Depletion of ozone layer:causes skin cancer and cataract in human and reduction of planktons in
ocean and depletion of plants. Depletion of ozone layer is caused by chlorofluoro carbonswhich are used
in refrigeration, fire extinguishers and aerosol sprayers.
In stratosphere, the depletion of ozone layer leading to ozone hole has been mainly observed in the
stratosphere of Antarctica. The formation of this hole occur due to the accumulation of special clouds in the
region called Polar Stratospheric Clouds (PSCs) and inflow of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).
Water pollution
• In some part of India, drinking water is contaminated by the impurities of arsenic, fluoride, uranium, etc. In
water, some dissolved Oxygen (DO) is also present. For a healthy aquatic life, the optimum value of DO is 5-6
ppm.
• If DO is below 5 ppm, the growth of fishes is inhibited.
• Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) is the total amount of oxygen (in mg) required by microbes to
decompose the organic matter present in 11 of water sample while Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) refers
to the total amount of oxygen (in ppm) consumed by the pollutants in a water sample.
• BOD =
𝐴𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑂𝑥𝑦𝑔𝑒𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 (𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑔)
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 (𝑖𝑛 𝐿)
• For clean water, BOD is less than 5 ppm while for highly polluted water, it is 17 ppm or more.
PROPERTIES OF GASES
➢ Properties of Gases
• Gas has no definite volume or shape.
• The other outstanding characteristic of gases is their low densities, compared with those of liquids
and solids.
• All gases expand equally due to equal temperature difference.
• Diffusion of gases: The phenomenon in which a substance mixes with another because of molecular
motion, even against gravity- is called diffusion.
• The pressure of a gas: The molecules of a gas, being in continuous motion, frequently strike the
inner walls of their container
• Temperature and Temperature Scales: Temperature is defined as the measure of average heat.
Temperature is independent of the number of particles or size and shape of the object.
➢ Compressibility:Particles of a gas have large intermolecular spaces among them. By the application
of pressure much of this space can be reduced and the particles be brought closer. Hence, the volume of a
gas can be greatly reduced. This is called compressing the gas.
➢ Gas Laws:All gases, irrespective of their chemical composition, obey certain laws that govern the
relationship between the volume, temperature and pressure of the gases. A given mass of a gas, under
definite conditions of temperature and pressure, occupies a definite volume.
When any of the three variables is altered, then the other variables get altered. Thus these Gas laws
establish relationships between the three variables of volume, pressure and temperature of a gas.
➢ Boyle's Law:"The product of the volume and pressure of a given mass of dry gas is constant, at
constant temperature".
➢ Charles Law:"At constant pressure, the volume of a given mass of gas increases or decreases by 1/273
of its original volume at 32°F, for each degree centigrade rise or lowering in temperature."
➢ Pressure Law:Volume remaining constant, the pressure of a given mass of gas increases or decreases
by a constant fraction (=1/273) of its pressure at 0°C for each degree Celsius rise or fall of temperature.
➢ Avogadro's Law:This is quite intuitive: the volume of a gas confined by a fixed pressure varies
directly with the quantity of gas. Equal volumes of gases, measured at the same temperature and pressure,
contain equal numbers of molecules. Avogadro's law thus predicts a directly proportional relation between
the number of moles of a gas and its volume.
➢ Gay-Lussac's Law:When different gases react with each other chemically to produce gaseous
substances, then under the same condition of temperature and pressure, the volume of the reacting gases
and product gases bear a simple ration among one another.
➢ Avogadro Number:From Avogadro's hypothesis, we know equal volume of all gases contain equal
number of molecules at normal temperature and pressure. The number is known as Avogadro Number and
is equal to 6.06 x 1023.
➢ The ideal gas equation of state:If the variables P. V. T and n (the number of moles) have
known values, then a gas is said to be in a definite state, meaning that all other physical properties of the gas
are also defined. The relation between these state variables is known as an equation of state.
An ideal gas is an imaginary gas that follows the gas laws and has 0 volume at 0 K i.e., the ideal gas does not
exist.
Calcium (Ca) Dolomite CaCO3.MgCO3

Calcite CaCo3
Gypsum CaSO4. 2H2O
Fluorspar CaF2
Asbestos CaSiO3.MgSiO3
Strontium (Sr) Strontanite SrCO3
Silestine SrSO4
Copper (Cu) Cuprite Cu2O
Copper glance Cu2S
Copper pyrites CuFeS2
Silver (Ag) Ruby Silver 3 Ag2S.Sb2S3
Horn Silver AgCl
Gold (Au) Calaverite AuTe2
Silvenites [(Ag , Au) Te2)
Barium (Ba) Barytes BaSO4
Zinc (Zn) Zinc blende ZnS
Zincite ZnO
Calamine ZnCO3
Mercury (Hg) Cinnabar HgS
Tin (Sn) Casseterite SnO2
Lead (Pb) Galena PbS
Antimony (Sb) Stibenite Sb2S3
Cadmium (Cd) Greenocite CdS
Bismuth (Bi) Bismuthite Bi2S3
Iron (Fe) Haematite Fe2O3
Limonite 2Fe2O3 .3H2O
Magnetite Fe3O4
Siderite FeCO3
Iron pyrite FeS2
Copper Pyrites CuFeS2
Cobalt (Co) Smelite CoAaS2
Nickel (Ni) Marnite NiS
Magnese (Mn) Pyrolusite MnO2
Milarite Mn2O3.2H2O
Uranium (U) Carnetite K(UO2). VO4 .3H2O
Pitch blende U3O8
Chemical names & Formulas

Common Name Chemical Name Formula
Alumina Aluminum oxide Al2O3
Baking soda Sodium hydrogen carbonate NaHCO3
Bleach (liquid) Hydrogen peroxide or sodium H2O3
hypochlorite NaCIO
Bleach (solid) Sodium perborate NaBO2.H2O2.3H2O
Bluestone Copper(II) sulfate pentahydrate CuSO4.5H2O
Borax Sodium tetraborate decahydrate Na2B4O7 .10 H2O
Brimstone Sulfur S
Carbon tetrachloride Tetrachloromethane CCI4
Chile saltpeter Sodium nitrate NaNO3
Chloroform Trichloromethane CHCI3
Cream of tartar Potassium hydrogen tartrate KHC4H4O6
Diamond Carbon C
Dolomite Calcium magnesium carbonate CaCO3.MgCO3
Epsom salt Magnesium sulfate heptahydrate MgSO4.7 H2O
Freon (refrigerant) Dichlorodifluoromethane CCL2F2
Galena Lead(II) sulfide PbS
Grain alcohol Ethyl alcohol; ethanol C2H5OH
Graphite Carbon C
Gypsum Calcium sulfate dihydrate CaSO4 .2 H2O
Нуро Sodium thiosulfate Na2S2O3
Laughing gas Dinitrogen monoxide N 2O
Lime Calcium oxide CaO
Limestone Calcium carbonate CaCO3
Lyc Sodium hydroxide NaOH
Common Name Chemical Name
Bleaching Powder Calcium Hypochlorite, CaO(Cl)2
Laughing gas Nitrous Oxide (N2O)
Water Gas Carbon monoxide & Hydrogen
Oil of Vitriol Sulphuric acid (H2SO4)
Baking Soda/ Powder Sodium Bicarbonate (NaHCO3)
Borax Sodium Tetra borate deca Hydrate,
(Na2B4O7.10H2O)
Caustic Soda Sodium Hydroxide(NaOH)
Washing Soda Sodium carbonate deca Hydrate(Na2CO3.10H2O)
Table salt/ Common salt/ Brime Sodium Chloride (NaCl)
Chile Salt peter Sodium Nitrate (NaNO3)
Hypo Sodium thio Sulphate(Na2S2O3)
Chalk/ Marble/ Pearl Calcium Carbonate(CaCO3)
Gypsum Calcium Sulphate Dihydrate
(CaSO4.2 H2O)
1
P.O.P Calcium Sulphate Hemi Hydrate (CaSO4.2 H2O)
Quick Lime Calcium Oxide (CaO)
Slaked Lime Calcium Hydroxide, Ca(OH)2
Potash Alum Potassium Aluminium Sulphate
(K Al(SO4)2.12H2O)
Potassium Hydroxide KOH
Caustic Potash Potassium Hydroxide(KOH)
Chloroform Tri Chloro methane(CHCl3)
Heavy Water Deuterium Oxide(D2O)
Sand Silicon Oxide(SiO2)
March Gas Methane(CH4)
Taer Gas Chloropicrin(C10H5CiN2)
TNT Tri nitro toluene(C7H5N3O6)
Magnetite Iron Oxide
Caloric Acid HOCl
Cane Sugar/ Table Sugar/ Sucrose Sucrose(C12H22O11)
Naphthalene C10H8
Benzene C6H6
Acetic Acid CH3COOH
Hydrochloric acid HCl
Sulfuric Acid H2SO4
Ammonia NH3
Acetate CH3COO-
Nitric Acid HNO3
Phosphoric Acid H3PO4
Ammonium sulfate (NH4)2SO4
Carbonic Acid H2CO3
Ethanol C2H5OH
Hydrobromic Acid HBr
Nitrous Acid HNO2
Potassium Hydroxide KOH
Silver Nitrate AgNO3
Sodium carbonate Na2CO3
Sodium Chloride NaCl
Cellulose (C6H10O6)n
Sulfurous Acid H2SO3
Aluminium Sulfate Al2(SO4)3
Aluminium Oxide Al2O3
Ammonium nitrate NH4NO3
Ammonium Phosphate (NH4)3PO4
Barium Hydroxide Ba(OH)2
Carbontetra chloride CCl4
Citric Acid C6H8O7
Salicylic Acid C7H6O3
Hypochlorous Acid HClO
Magnesium Phosphate Mg3(PO4)2
Sodium acetate C2H3NaO2
Sodium sulfate Na2SO4
Sucrose C12H22O11
Ammonium Bicarbonate NH4HCO3
Calcium Nitrate Ca(NO3)2
Phenol C6H6O
Hydrogen peroxide H2O2
Glycerine C3H8O3
Barium nitrate Ba(NO3)2
Calcium Acetate C4H6O4Ca
Sodium sulfide Na2S
Zinc Nitrate Zn(NO3)2
Phenolphthalein C20H14O4
Acetone C3H6O
Hydroquinone C6H6O2
Ammonium Acetate C2H3O2NH4
Xylene C8H10
Chromate CrO42-
Methyl Ethyl Ketone C4H8O
Methanol CH3OH
Sodium sulfite Na2SO3
Sulfur Trioxide SO3
Aluminium Phosphate AlPO4
Stearic Acid C18H36O2
Acetonitrile C2H3N
Oxalic Acid H2C2O4
Potassium Chlorate KClO3

160) Chemistry Revised English Printable

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160) Chemistry Revised English Printable

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➢ Matter & its Nature ➢ Chemical Reactions &

➢ Acids, Base & Salts ➢ Chemical Bonding

➢ pH Scale ➢ Atmospheric Pollution

➢ Chemistry in everyday Life

Property Solid Liquid Gas

Energy Lowest Medium Highest

Compressibility Difficult Nearly difficult Easy

Fluidity Cannot flow Flows from higher to Flows in all directions

Movement Negligible Depends on interparticle Free, constant and

Interparticle space Very less More Large

Interparticle attraction Maximum Medium Minimum

Density Maximum Medium Minimum

Rate of diffusion Negligible It depends on Maximum

Characteristics of Particles of Matter

Intensive & Extensive properties of matter

Physical and Chemical Properties of Matter

• As a result, the state of matter begins to change.

Effect of Change in Pressure on the State of Matter

• During diffusion, the particles occupy the interparticle spaces.

Latent Heat of Vaporisation

Cooling Due to Evaporation

Applications of Evaporative Cooling

➢ Compounds: Compounds are the substances consisting of two or more different

Difference between Mixtures and Compounds

Compounds fall under pure substances. Mixtures can be categorized as impure

Compounds are always homogeneous in nature Mixtures can either be homogeneous or

• Crude oil: A mixture of organic compounds (mainly hydrocarbons)

Homogeneous Mixture: A mixture which has a uniform composition throughout is

• Steel – a combination of iron (metal) and carbon (non-metal).

Physical and Chemical Changes

Solutions and Their Properties

• A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances.

Types of Solutions based on the Concentration of the Solution

Ways of Representing the Concentration of a Solution

(ii) Mass by volume percentage of a solution = (Mass of solute/ volume of solution)×100

• The solute particles settle down when a suspension is left undisturbed.

Colloidal Solutions: A colloidal solution is a mixture in which the substances are

• Classified into: Foam, Emulsion, Sol

➢ Dispersed Phase: The solute-like component of the dispersed particles in a colloid

➢ Dispersion Medium: The component in which the dispersed phase is suspended is

Gels and Emulsions

➢ Evaporation:The process of conversion of water into water vapour is known

Some of the common methods of separating substances or mixtures are:

Separation of a Mixture of Two Immiscible Liquids

Crystallization better than Evaporation

Separation of Air into Its Components

Law of Conservation of Mass

Law of Constant Proportions

• The symbol X: the usual element symbol

Atomic Mass and Atomic Mass Unit

Mole Concept & Avogadro Number

Molecules and Atomicity

Writing Chemical Formulae

Cathode Ray Experiment

Thomson’s Model of an Atom

Rutherford’s Model of an Atom

Bohr’s Model of an Atom

Electron Distribution in Different Orbits

Types of Chemical Reactions

Double Displacement Reaction or Precipitation Reaction

Endothermic and Exothermic reaction

Effect of Oxidation Reaction in Everyday Life

Introduction to Acids, Bases and Salts