Big Bang - explosion of a primordial atom which happened 13 billion years ago.

It also explains the

continous expansion of the universe.

Big Bang Nucleosynthesis – the process of combining protons and neutrons to form light elements such
as Hydrogen and Helium, Lithium and Beryllium.

Stellar Nucleosynthesis – formation of elements in the center of the star by combining the protons and
neutrons together from the nuclei of lighter elements

1. Nebula – first stagei of a star’s life

2. Protostar
3. Main Sequence Star – where hydrogen fuses and and is converted into helium, the phase of
our sun
4. Red Super Giant – biggest stars in the universe
5. Supernova – massive stars explode and release large amount of energy
6. Blackhole
7. Neutron Star
8. Red Giant
9. White Dwarf – created after the end of red giant
10. Black Dwarf
Proton-Proton Chain Reaction – in which the average star gets their energy and convert Hydrogen
into Helium.
Tri-alpha Process – this is how three Helium-4 is converted into Carbon, happens in red giant star once
they leave the stage of main sequence star.
Alpha Ladder Process - by which stars convert helium into heavier elements until Iron
Supernova Nucleosynthesis – formation of elements heavier than Iron
Neutron Capture – when a neutron is added to a seed nucleus to form a heavier nucleus
Nuclear transmutation reaction – a process of transforming one element or isotope into another element

2 Principle Paths In Building Elements Heavier Than Fe

 S-process – “slow addition of neutrons”, where the rate of no capture is low compared to beta-
decay rate (which is the emittance of an electron) or slow rate of capturing neutron
 R-process - “rapid addition of neutrons” where many neutrons are added before a betadecay
occurs or faster rate of capturing neutrom before it undergoes radioactive decay

In 1930’s, the heaviest element known was Uranium (atomic number 92)
In 1940, Edwin McMillan proved that an element with an atomic number 93 could be created.
Transuranic Elements - synthetic elements with atomic numbers higher than Uranium. (Z = 92)
Element-94 – synthesized by Seaborg, McMillan, Kennedy, and Wahl. They named it “Plutonium”
Transuranium Elements – elements with atomic numbers greater than 92.
Superheavy Elements – elements with atomic numbers beyond 103.

The first naturally occuring unstable element that was isolated, polonium, was discovered by Marie
Curie and husband Pierre in 1898.
 a) Curium (Z=96) was formed by reacting Pu-239 witj alpha particles 42He. It has a half life of
162 days.
23994PU + 42He  24296Cm + 10n Cm
b) Mendelevium ( Z= 101) was formed by reacting En-253 with alpha particles

25399 En + 42He  256101Mv + 10n Mv

c) Meitnerium (Z=109) was formed by cold fusion which involves the combination of Brand Fe
nucleotides at ordinary temperature.
20983Bi + 5826Fe  266109Mt + 10n
Dmitri Mendeleev – often regarded as the Father of The Periodic Table.
Ernest Rutherford – successfully carried out a nuclear transmutation reaction in 1919
Nuclear Fission – also known as Nucleosynthesis
Stellar Nucleosynthesis – known as the origin and production of heavy elements
Technetium – created by bombardment of molybdenum by deutrons by Emilio Segre and Carlo Perrier
in 1937
S-Process – process that can produce elements up to #83-Bismuth, also known as nuclear fusion
R- Process – process where there is a buildup of a very heavy isotope to produce a very heavy product
Primordial Nucleosynthesis – origin of light elements
Nucleosynthesis – also known as nuclear fission and the formation of new nuclei actions in the early
stages of development of the universe
Super Heavy Elements – elements with atomic number beyond 103
Stellar Nucleosynthesis – process by which elements are created within the star, occurs in the main
sequence of stars, origin and production of heavy elements
Particle Accelerator - - a device used to speed up the protons to overcome the repulsion between the
protons and the target atomic nuclei by using magnetic and electrical fields, used to synthesize new
elements
Cyclotron – a particle accelerator that uses alternating electric field to accelerate particles that move in a
spiral path
Dmitri Mendeleev – created a classification of elements based on their atomic weight
Singularity – a one dimensional point which contains a huge mads in an infinitely small space
Atomic number – number of protons in an atom
Protons – positively charged particles
Henry Gwynn-Jeffreys Moseley – an English physicist who demonstrated that the atomic number
determines most of the properties of an element
In 1925, there were four vacancies in the periodic table (43,61,85,87)
In 1923, Moseley used Rutherford’s work to advance the understanding of the elements and solve
the problem with Mendeleev’s periodic table
X-ray Spectroscopy – the method of identifying elements by shooting electrons through x-ray, used to
determine the atomic number of an element, discovered by Moseley
Big Bang Nucleosynthesis – process wherein light elements such as helium and hydrogen form
1937-Ernest Lawrence synthesized new element in atomic number 43 using linear particle
accelerator
Technetium from Greek word “technêtos” meaning “artificial”
1940 – Dale Carson, K. Mackenzie, and Emilio Segre discovered new element in atomic number 85
(named Astatine) from greek word “astatos” meaning “unstable”
Element-61 (Promethium) discovered as a decay product of the fission of uranium
Element-87 (Francium) discovered as a breakdown of uranium
CNO Cycle – happens in massive star which convert hydrogen into helium
Neutron capture – addition of neutron to form heavier nuclei
Proton-Proton Chain Reaction – a nuclear fusion reaction here Hydrogen is converted to Helium

Nuclear Fusion – process where energy of star is produced

Red Super Giant – known as the biggest stars in the universe
Hydrogen and Helium – two major components of a star
Helium – the second most abundant element in the universe
Protostar – formed from gas and dust particles which are pulled together by gravity
“We are made of star stuff” – Carl Sagan
A star becomes unstable when it runs out of fuel
Star – a huge luminous ball of hot gas such as Hydrogen and Helium
Chemical bonds – formed when atoms lose, accept, or share electrons
Ionic bonds – occurs when there is a transfer of one or more valence electrons form one atom to another.
It exists between metal and non-metal atoms, where metal loses electrons while nonmetal accepts
the electron donated by a metal.
Covalent bonds – when two nonmetals combine and neither of them loses or gains electron
Polar Covalent Bonds – formed when electrons are shared unequally by two atoms in a compound.,
holds the atoms of a water molecule together
Nonpolar Covalent Bond – develops if both atoms equally share a pair of electrons between them.
Polarity of molecules is determined by: Polarity of bonds based on electronegativity difference of
atoms, and molecular geometry
VSEPR theory- Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion
Electronegativity – measures the relative tendency of an atom to attract electrons to itself when
chemically combined with other atom, the ability to of a bonded atom to attract shared electron pairs
The higher the EN, the more it tends to attract.
TYPE OF BOND:
IONIC – MORE THAN 1.7
POLAR COVALENT – O.5 – 1.6
NONPOLAR COVALENT – LESS THAN 0.4
Dipole – means two poles, two charges separated by a distance
Solubility – ability of a solid substance to be dissolved in a given amount of solvent (dissolve)
Miscibility – ability of two liquids to or mix in all proportions (mix)
IMFA – Intermolecular Forces of Attraction
(strongest to weakest)
Ion-dipole  H-bonding  dipole-dipole  dipole-induced dipole London forces of attraction

Physical properties affected by strength of IMFA:

Melting point- temperature at which solid becomes liquid
Boiling point- temperature at which the vapor pressure and atmospheric pressure of a substance is equal
Vapor pressure- pressure exerted by a substance in its gaseous state (has indirect relationship with IMFA
Surface tension- energy needed to increase the surface area by a unit amount
Viscosity- the resistance of the liquid to flow
Volatility – measures the rate at which a substance vaporizes (changes from liquid to gas)
Intramolecular forces of attraction exist within a molecule while intermolecular forces exist
between the molecules.
London forces of attraction – considered as the weakest in IMFA’s
Because of H-bonding, the boiling point of water is greater than dihydrogen sulfide
Proteins – are macromolecules having polar and nonpolar ends which are essential for life
processes to occur

Intermolecular Forces – attractive forces that hold particles such as molecules together
4 types of intermolecular forces:

 Hydrogen bond- contains hydrogen atom bonded to a strongly electronegative atom, a force
that links polar molecules which contain hydrogen atom
 Dipole-dipole force – an interaction between polar molecules, result of molecules with positive
end in one side and negative end on the other side
 Ion-Dipole Force – an attractive force between ionic molecules and polar molecules, the
strongest force
 Dispersion Force or London Force – a result of interaction between non-polar molecules.
Considered as the weakest kind. named after Fritz Wolfgang London who provided a
significant interpretation for the existence of temporary dipoles.
Positive ion is also called “cation”

Biological Macromolecules – made up of monomers that are combined through covalent binds to form
large polymers
Monomers – small building block molecule, means “single unit”
Polymer – molecules formed by two monomers, means “many units”
Dehydration – occurs when a monomer combined with another monomer releasing a water molecule
leading to the formation of covalent bond
Hydrolysis reactions – take place when polymers are broken down into single monomers

Four Groups of Macromolecules:

 Carbohydrates – are compounds made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms with a ratio
of 1:2:1, formed during photosynthesis and can be used as the main source of energy
Glucose – the common type of simple carbohydrates with a molecular formula of (C6H12O6)
Starch and Cellulose – large complex molecules of carbohydrates
 Lipids – formed when glycerol molecules are joined with compound fatty acids
 Nucleic Acids – made up of large single or double-stranded chains of nucleotides
 Proteins – made up of long chain molecules called amino acids, and it serves as a catalyst for
chemical reaction in cells (enzyme)
Classification of Carbohydrates:
1. Monosaccharides -aka simple sugars which consists of one sugar molecule, considered as the
building block of carbohydrates
2. Disaccharides – made up of two covalently bonded monosaccharides
3. Oligosaccharides – formed of carbohydrates that consist of three to ten simple sugars
 4. Polysaccharides – composed of more than ten, hundreds, or thousands of the same or different
type of sugars

Glucose – body’s main source of energy and can be found in rice,bread, pasta
Fructose or fruit sugar - can be found in fruits and honey
Galactose or milk sugar – can be acquired through consuming dairy products, simplest form of
carbohydrates
Lactose – composed of gluctose and galactose
Sucrose or table sugar – composed of glucose and fructose, commonly found in sugarcane
Maltose or malt sugar – composed of two glucose molecules, found in beer
Raffinose – found in plants composed of melibiose
Maltotriose – made up of three glucose
Stachyose – consists of two galactose
Glycosidic bond – chain of polysaccharides
Starch – the energy storage of plants
Cellulose – basic structure of plant cell wall
Glycogen – stored form of energy of animals
Casein – protein in milk

Unsaturated fat – liquid at room temperature

Saturated fat – solid at room temperature

Atherosclerosis – may occur when cholesterol accumulates the wall of arteries thus reducing bloodflow
Ribonucleic Acid – contains ribose sugar and responsible in making proteins
Deoxyribonucleic Acid – contains deoxyribose sugar. It makes up our genes
Nucleotide – building block of nucleic acids
Condensation Reaction – process of forming or synthesizing proteins
Elastin – protein that gives skin elasticity
Peptide Bond ,- links amino acids together
Complex carbohydrates – have no chain of sugar
FAD – FLAVINE ADENINE DINUCLEOTIDE
NAD – NICOTINAMIDE ADENINE DINUCLEOTIDE
ATP – ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPHATE, serves as nucleotide energy carrier
Chemical Kinetics – area of chemistry that deals with how fast chemical reaction occurs and the factors
that influence the rate of reaction
Collision Theory – assumes that the particles must collide in order for chemical change to take place
In every 100C increased in the temperature, approximately the rate of reaction will double.
The smaller the particle size of the reactant, the faster the reaction will take place
Activation Energy – energy needed for the chemical reaction to take place
Catalyst – a substance that increases the rate of chemical reaction
Catalysis – the process of adding catalyst to speed up chemical reaction without being consumed in any
given reaction
Can be:
Homogenous - a reactant is in the same phase
Heterogeneous – a reactant is at different phase

Manganese Dioxide – a solid used to speed up the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide

Delta sign means change in
Delta (x) – given reactant or product
Delta (t) – change in time

Limiting Reactant – a substance which was first used in a chemical reaction

Renewable energy sources – replenished naturally over time
Nonrenewable energy source – will run out of supply once consumed
Fossil fuels – refer to combustible products of buried organic matter
Biogas – source of this is animal manure. Can be used to generate heat, hot water or electricity
Geothermal energy – energy harnessed from the beneath the earth
Hydrothermal – heat obtained from hot water from hydrothermal vents or seawater
Batteries – devices that store and convert chemical energy into electrical energy
Cleaning Products – substances that remove dirt, stain, and bad smell
Cleaning Agents – considered as having additive ingredients
Active ingredients – substances that directly help in achieving the performance objective of a certain
product
Inactive Ingredients – include fragrance and solvents
Detergents – contains surfactant, micelles are dispersed throughout the water
Bleach – removes dyes and whiten clothing, has sodium hypochlorite
Drain cleaner -unblocks sewer pipes or clogged wastewater drains, has sodium hydroxide
Disinfectant – used to lessen microbes on surfaces but not clean them
Solar cells – devices that convert sunlight into electricity
Biomass – uses organic material, materials are burnt to generate heat which can be used to cook food or
boil water

Solvent – increases quantity of cleaning agent and dilutes it

Fragrance Enhancers – added to products to remove unwanted odor
Masking agents – used to remove fragrance
Builders – prevents other contaminants from reacting with the active ingredients in detergents
Preservatives – maintains the pH balance and keeps it functional
Antimicrobial Agents – preserves the appearance of the product, removes bacteria
Bubble enhancers – enhances the covered area of the surfactant
Oblate Spheroid – shape of the earth
Solstice – either of the two times a year when the sun reaches its highest or lowest point
Eclipse – an obscuring of the light from one celestial body by the passage of another
Heliocentrism – astronomical model in which earth and planets revolve around the sun
Geocentrism – any theory that assumes the earth is the center of it all
Pythagoras and his pupils – first proposed that the earth is spherical on 500 B.C when most greeks
believed that the earth is flat
500 to 430 B.C, ANAXOGARAS further supported this
340 B.Anaxagoras stotle listed several arguments for a spherical earth
Eratosthenes – gave the most accurate size of the spherical earth
The sun made an angle of 7.2° from vertical
The earth’s circumference is approximately 250,000 stadia and 40,000 kilometers
Anaxagoras- explains the phases of the moon
Eudoxus- proposed a system of fixed spheres
Aristotle – a student of Plato, believes that the earth is spherical in shape, Father of Natural Science,
used logic and reason
Aristarchus – very first greek to profess the heliocentric view. which considers the sun as the center of
the universe
Helios means sun, centric means centered
Eratosthenes – made the first successful attempt to determine the size of the earth by applying
geometric principles. And by observing syrene and alexandria opposite each other
Hipparchus – the greatest of the early greek astronomers. He observed and compared the brightnes of
850 stars and arranged them into order of brightness
Claudius Ptolemy – believes that the earth is the center of the universe.
Ptolemic Model – claimed that the planets moved in a complicated system of circles.
Geometric Model was also known as Ptolemic System
Epicycles – the planets orbited in small circles
Deferents – large circles
Retrogade motion – westward drift of planets

Gnomon – a primitive version of sundial created by babylonians and egyptians

Earth is tilted on its axis approximately 23.4° which gives us seasons
Summer solstice – when the longest time of the year occurs
Winter solstice – when the shortest day of the year occurs
Ecliptic – the lath the sun appears to take around the celestial sphere each year
Moon “Satellite” – a relatively small object orbiting around the planet
Earth’s moon is the fifth biggest moon in the solar system
Distance between earth and moon is 380,000 kilometers.
It takes 27 days, 7 hours, and 43 minutes for our moon to complete a full orbit around the earth
It takes 29?5 days to complete one cycle of phases
Time interval between a new moon and the next repetition js : 29.53 days
Full moon falls on 14th or 15th day of the lunar month
New Moon – first half of the moon cycle begins. It is totally dark and sometimes called the dark moon
Occurs when the sun, moon, earth are lined up
First quarter – half the side of the moon is facing the earth
Full moon – the whole side of the moon is now illuminated
Third or last quarter – like the first quarter, half side is illuminated. Sets as at noon, rises at
midnight
Earthshine – sunshine reflected to the moon from the daylight region of the earth
Popularly called “the old moon in the new moon’s arms”
Gibbous moon – when the moon appears as a lopsided globe
Lunar Eclipse – the lining up of the earth, moon, sun produces a lunar eclipses when the moon passes
into the shadow of the earth
Solar Eclipse – when the moon comes between the sun and the earth then jt hides briefly from our side,
when moon’s shadow falls on earth.
Average time of totality is 2-3 minutes while maximum is 7.5 minutes
Polaris – northern star but soon because if precession it will point to vega
Diurnal motion – apparent daily revolution of the celestial sphere around the celestial poles as a
direft effect of the earth’s rotation
Annual motion – apparent yearly movement of the stars as a direct effect of the earth’s revolution
around the sun

Equinoxes – the two points in which the celestial equator intersects twice
Precession – apparent motion of the equinoxes during the ecliptic.
Mercury – smallest and fastest of the planets, closest to the sun, takes only 88 days to complete one
revolution
Venus – second planet from the sun, brightest object in the sky, often called “the evening star”
Mars – the reddish planet. Only surface planets whose surface seems suitable
Martian tectonism – the formation and change of a planet’s crust
Jupiter – most massive planet in our solar system.consists primarily of hydrogen and Helium
Saturn – its famous rings characterize Jupiter