Nuclear Reactions and Origin of Elements

1. Origin of Light Elements

Atom- building block of matter

Naturally-made elements that made up matter is 114. But, there more than 114 elements in the
periodic table which is because some of them are artificially made. Hence, elements can be
invented/ “madagdagan” by the scientists through the advancements of our technology. These
114 natural elements started after the explosion of big bang theory through the process known as
“nuclear reaction”

Which elements emerged from primordial nucleosynthesis?

      How do you think did everything around us form? The emergence of the universe brought
about the formation of elements, and consequently of matter. One of the most popular attempt to
describe the early universe is the Big Bang Theory. Do you still remember this most acceptable
theory about the origin of the universe? What are the three key observational evidence
supporting the big bang model? (read pp.3-5 of your text book.)  Scientists believe that
everything in the universe was formed through nuclear reactions. What is nuclear reaction?

Nuclear reaction is a process in which nucleus (of an atom) either combines with another
nucleus (through nuclear fusion) or splits into smaller nuclei (through nuclear fission). These
processes involve the emission of energetic particles (in the form of heat) of an atom, a
phenomenon known as radioactivity.

 Nucleus of a light element can combine to another nucleus of a light element, forming a
heavy element. This nuclear reaction is known as nuclear fusion
 Splitting of nucleus of heavy element in order to form light elements. This nuclear
reaction is known as nuclear fission
 For both processes to materialize, a tremendous amount (high temp) of heat energy must
be involved.
 Both nuclear processes are possible to stars.
 The nuclear reaction process we can perform/imitate on the earth’s surface due to the
advancement of technology is Nuclear Fission. We can bombard the nucleus for it to
explode and then, it will split into light elements. That is the concept of nuclear power
plants nad nuclear bomb. We have nuclear power plants in which, we can wreck/ sirain
elements. In order to produce a heat energy needed to generate an electrical energy,
nuclear power plant is used. There is a bombardment of the nucleus of uranium- the most
radioactive element we have. We cannot perform the other process because it requires a
tremendous amount of heat energy for the union of light elements.
 In the formation of light elements, protons and neutrons fused forming nuclei in the
process called nucleosynthesis. In this process “light elements” were produced shortly
after the big bang. The most common radioactive particles involved in nuclear reactions
are α particle, β particle, neutron, proton, γ radiation, etc.
Look at the symbol below, identify the atomic mass/ mass number (superscript) and atomic
number (subscript).

 Atomic number (Z) is the identity of the atom. Gives the no. of positive (protons) or
negative (electrons) there is.
 Atomic mass (A) is the no. of protons and the no. of neutrons present in the nucleus. It is
what is inside the center of nucleus. It is what weighs down the particle or elements.
 What made up the nucleus of an atom is the positive and neutral charge.

The following are the most common types of nuclear reactions happening in a star on its life
cycle (from birth to death)/ where 114 naturally made elements came from

 Alpha decay: loss of an alpha particle (4 2α ) or Helium (4 2He)

 Beta Decay: loss of beta particle (0 -1 β) or Electron (0 -1E)
 Gamma Radiation: emission of gamma ray (00γ)
 Positron emission: conversion of a proton in a nucleus into a neutron, along with the
release of a positron.
 Electron capture: drawing of an electron into an atom’s nucleus
 Bombardment of an alpha particle: addition of alpha particle

 In a chemical/nuclear equation, initial/primary materials undergo nuclear fussion and

nuclear fission.
 Primary materials are considered as reactants (everything left side of the arrow). Then the
result/output of the equation is called the products.

----PAGE 5-----

  Which elements emerged from stellar nucleosynthesis?

Stellar nucleosynthesis is a process responsible for the formation of heavy elements. The two
key processes of stellar nucleosynthesis are nuclear fusion and neutron capture. To fully
recognize the processes that form heavy elements, one must understand the life span of stars.

 As it expands, the more elements are formed

STARS

Made out of gas

Hydrogen atoms fuse together to form helium and with the burst of nuclear energy, a star
begins to shy.
Even on the dying stage of stars or after the supernova, the formation of new elements are
possible.

COSMIC ORIGIN OF ELEMENTS:

1. The big bang theory ---PAGE 7----

 Hot, dense mass about one centimeter in diameter experienced a huge explosion.
 The products spread as a fast moving cloud of gas accompanied by an emission of a huge
amount of light.
 A second after the big explosion, subatomic particles such as protons, neutrons and
electrons were formed.
 Then the formation of first light element which is hydrogen and its isotopes. Hydrogen
has 2 isotopes- Hydrogen 2 and Hydrogen 3
o The neutral of Hydrogen is 1 (1 Proton and no neutron)
 As it expands, universe cooled; protons and neutrons started to fuse to form heavier
nuclei of deuterium (an isotope of hydrogen with 1 neutron and 1 proton) and some into
helium.
 Minutes after, the universe was composed of 75% (by mass) hydrogen, 25% Helium (4
2He) and trace amounts of lithium.
 The process through which these light elements formed are generally called big bang
nucleosynthesis.
 Tritium (it has 2 neutron and 1 proton) (3 1H) is an isotope of hydrogen formed from big
bang nucleosynthesis
 Subsequent Nuclear Fusion Reactions are when two atomic nuclei join to form a new
type of nuclei…
 Isotopes are atoms of an element that have the same number of protons but, different
numbers of neutrons
 There is the formation of two light elements (Hydrogen and Helium) in this cosmic
 To identify whether the chemical equation is big bang/ nucleosynthesis, HYDROGEN
and HELIUM must be the only ones present with neutron/ protons.

2. STELLAR FORMATION AND EVOLUTION

 The cloud of Hydrogen and Helium gases condensed to form stars including the sun
(Exothermic Reaction)
 Proton-proton chain reaction(p-p chain) which is for the formation of hydrogen or
hydrogen burning which is for the formation of helium and CNO (Carbon, Nitrogen and
Oxygen) cycle
 Helium burning is if the temperature is 108 Kelvin then, it produce carbon-12
  Carbon and Oxygen Burning is 5 x 108 K temperature, produce NE on its last reaction
that can react leading to the formation of Oxygen (109 K).
 Silicon Burning lead to stable nucleus, iron-56. Nickel element is formed here. Then if
nickel undergo radioactivity/ nuclear decay, iron will be formed. Then, it will become
stable or there will be no transformation that will happen.
 Iron is the most stable nuclei, it cannot undergo nuclear fusion.
 The reactions involved in the formation of each new element happened in regions or
layers so called fusion shells.
 Stars are described to have an “onion skin structure” as they evolved and produced new
elements.
 Elements are the ff. : Carbon (C), Neon (Ne), Oxygen (O), Silicon (Si), Iron(Fe)

3. STELLAR EXPLOSION
Neutron capture(creating heavier isotope) and decay processes(creating heavier nuclei)
After the explosion, it does not mean that the formation of elements are
complete/finished.
The red giant star’s core started to collapse that eventually led to the explosion of the star
Violent Explosion of the star is called supernova
o Supernova released a huge amount of nuclear energy and produced through
neutron capture and radioactive decay, other elements heavier than iron.
Elements formed: Copper, Zinc, Cobalt and etc.

2. Atoms from the Eyes of the Philosophers ----PAGE 11 & 12-----

According to the fundamental Greek theory of matter originated by the philosopher Empedocles.

 Thales of Miletus
- Before the year 450 BC of Empedocles, Thales of Miletus described matter as
something that is made up of water.
 Empedocles
- Asserted that all things are composed of four primal elements: fire, air, water and earth
- Supported by Aristotle and added a fifth element which is aether / ether
 Aristotle
- Did not believe in the existence of atoms
- Asserted that all matter was continuous
- His ideas greatly influenced the alchemists during the 300 BC until the end of 17 th
Century
 Democritus
- Supported the idea of matter based on the particle theory
- Believed that all matter are composed of very small particles called atoms, a term
that came from the Greek word atomos, which means “indivisible” or
“uncuttable”
- His concept of atom is that it is a sphere but, there is nothing inside it. It’s void or
there is only space inside.
 Robert Boyle
- He ended the four-element theory by Empedocles and the practice of alchemy
when he wrote the Sceptical Chymist published in 1661.
 Dalton’s Atomic Theory
- It was introduce by John Joseph Dalton in 1808
- It marked the beginning of the modern era of chemistry
- It is a theory about the atom itself.
- The principles of atom according to Dalton:
o Elements are made up of small indivisible particles called atoms.
o In any given pure element, the mass and other properties of all the atoms are the
same. Atoms of different elements differ in mass and other properties.
o Compounds are composed of atoms of more than one element. The constituent
atoms in a given compound are present in a consistent or constant whole number
ratio.
o In a chemical reaction, atoms are neither created nor destroyed. They simply
combine, separate or rearrange.
 Joseph Proust
- He suggested that when forming a compound, elements always combine in similar
proportions by mass regardless of the size of the sample (law of definite proportions)
 John Joseph Thomson
- He presented that electrons have a negative charge which are scattered.
- Proposed the “plum pudding”- the neutral charge is paired up with positive
charge.

 Ernest Rutherford
- Presented the “Gold Foil” in 1911
- Rutherford is known for
identifying/discovery of the position of
the positive charge is.
- In his model, he used light rays from an
alpha (positive) source and then,
bombarded the center of the gold. Then,
to block the light rays, he placed a
barrier.
- In his setup, he observed that light
penetrated which proves that there is a
space in matter. Then, he noticed that
light is also scattered meaning that there
 is deflection or an opposite charge was hit. Other than that, there are light that
bounced back which means it hitted a positive charge because light charges repel.
- He then concluded that the negative charge are not scattered rather, it is placed
somewhere.
- From that, the concept of nucleus was introduced. At the center of atom is where
the positive charge particles (protons) are concentrated.
 Neil’s Bohr
- Known for his Planetary Model of an Atom
- The negative particles are not
scattered but, rather they are rotating
and placed in the middle like the
solar system. Wherein the center
(nucleus), is the sun and then the
electrons represent the planets.
- Where the particles are placed are
what we call energy levels/shells. It
is where we can find the electrons.
That is how the concept of sub-
atomic particles are developed.

STRUCTURE OF AN ATOM:

Atom is defined as the tiniest particle of an element that retains the chemical properties
of that element
All atoms are made up of the nucleus and the electrons
The center of an atom is a nucleus which is composed of protons and neutrons

PROTONS AND NEUTRONS

 Protons are positively charged particles

o With a mass of 1.60022 x 10−19 or 1.67262 x 10−24 g
 James Chadwick
o He proved the presence of neutral subatomic particles called neutrons

ELECTRONS

 Surrounds the nucleus

 Negatively charged particles (-e)
 Compared to the mass of proton, each electron is considered 1840 times lighter than a
proton.
3. Atomic Number

The discovery of subatomic particles prompted other scientists to study the variations in the
characteristics of elements.

English physicist Henry Gwyn Jeffreys Moseley

- Experimentally found that different metals bombarded with electrons produced

varying frequencies of X-rays. He attributed these results to the differences in the
positive charge in the nucleus of the elements.
- He correlated the frequencies to whole numbers, which he assigned to each
element-the atomic number.
- He assigned atomic numbers to each element.
- Atomic numbers are represented by Z.
- Atomic number is the identity of an atom.
- It refers to the number of protons in the nucleus of each atom.
o The number of protons is the same with the number of electrons
o Ex: C (Carbon with atomic no. of 6) meaning, there are 6 protons in the
center of the element and there are also 6 electrons that rotates.

ATOMIC MASS

- Given the symbol A

- Total number of neutrons and protons present in the nucleus of an atom of an
element
- Dmitri Mendeleev arranged the atomic masses of the elements in 1869 which
paved way to the construction of the present periodic table.
- However, Mosely argued and confirmed in 1913 that the basis for the
arrangement should be the atomic number

ISOTOPES

o We cannot use the atomic mass in arranging the elements of the periodic
table because of the concept of isotopes and since atomic masses changes
through the number of neutral charge

o Since the proton do not change, the atomic number are all 1.
 - Atoms that have the same atomic number but different atomic masses

IONS

- Positively charged ion / donating valence electrons is called cation

- Negatively charged ion / receiving valence electrons is called anion
- For ions to be noble gases, they donate or receive electrons.
- Ex: Li and F (Lithium has atomic no. of 3 and is in the period/row 2)
o In atomic no, it means that lithium has 3 protons and electrons. Then,
lithium being in the period 2, means that it has energy level of 2. In the
first energy level, there are 2 electrons and then, on the second energy
level, there is 1.
o The maximum no. of electron in the first energy level is only up to 2.
From second energy level until the seventh energy level, the maximum no.
of electron is 8 (because of octet rule)
o Period is the energy level where the electrons can be found.
- F(fluorine has atomic no. of 9 and has 2 energy level)
o In the first energy level, there are 2 electrons. In the second energy level,
there are 7 electrons
o Only 1 electron is needed for this element to be stable (noble gas which is
their target)
o Then, lithium will give 1 electron.
o Hence, Fluorine is anion (negative 1) and lithium is cation (positive 1).
And both elements are now stable or a noble gas. Fluorine has the same
characteristics is the same with neon (noble gas) and then, lithium has the
same characteristics as Helium (noble gas)

VALENCE ELCTRONS

- Electrons on the last energy level

CHEMICAL BOND

- an electrical attraction between the nuclei and valence electrons of an atom

- A bond resulting from the attraction of nuclei for electrons (intramolecular force)

ELECTRONEGATIVITY

- Tendency of an atom to attract electrons toward itself

- If electronegativity is high, it means the attraction of nucleus to the valence
electrons is also high
- Ex: Fluorine has electronegativity of 4 and lithium has 1 thus, fluorine can attract
the valence electron of lithium. Fluorine is stronger bc. its electronegativity is
higher than lithium.

TWO MAJOR TYPES OF BONDING

 In ionic bonding, there is transferring, receiving and donating of electrons since, electrons
will be stable individually. Or, if the reactants give and receive valence electrons.
 In covalent bonding, there is sharing of electrons or if the reactants share valence
electrons

 Elements under the in family B that forms

minor type of bonding
 Because of its mobility, metals are good
conductors of heat and electricity

o IONIC BONDING- Always formed

between metals and non-metals
 Family 1A are metals except
hydrogen
 Family 2A are earth metals
 Family 3A-7A are non-
metals
COVALENT BONDING- Pairs of electrons are shared between Non-metal atoms.

OIL AND WATER DO NOT MIX BECAUSE OIL IS NON POLAR WHILE WATER
IS POLAR
MOLECULAR GEOMETRY

o In chemical reaction,
there must be a
collision for a new
substance to be
formed.
o The particles of primary materials (have ionic/covalent bonding present)
must collide to form a product in Collision Theory.

 States are the state of matter: solid, liquid or

gas
 Coefficients are inserted to balance the
equation