CHAPTER 1: ORIGIN AND FORMATION OF ELEMENTS

THE ORIGIN OF THE LIGHT ELEMENTS

 The emergence of the universe brought the formation of the element, and consequently matter. One of the most
popular attempts to describe the early universe is the Big Bang Theory.
 Belgian Astrophysicist and Priest (ABBES EDOUARD LEMAITRE) pioneered the Big Bang.
 The BIG BANG postulates that the universe emerged from a state of enormous density and energy. But this was first
coined by FRED HOYLE in 1949.
 By the early 1930’s, an American Astronomer EDWIN HUBBLE made a major discovery at Mount Wilson Observatory
in California, USA. Together with MILTON HUMANSON who formulated Hubble’s Law which proved that the
universe is expanding thereby suggested that it was one compact.
 HUBBLE’s LAW- state that the other galaxies are moving away relative to the MILKY WAY galaxy at a rate
proportional to distance
 In 1940’s, theoretical Physicist and Cosmologist GEORGE GAMOW together with ROBERT HERMAN and RALPH
ALPHER predicted that if the early stage of the universe was hot and dense, then an afterglow of radiation must
have filled up the universe because of the cooling process.
 Aside from predicting the presence of radiation, Gamow, Herman and Alpher also believed that the high temperature
of the universe was an ideal condition for nuclear reactions to have occurred during the first few minutes of the Big
Bang. These reactions began with the fusion of protons and neutrons, forming nuclei in a process called
nucleosynthesis.
 Primordial or big bang nucleosynthesis produced light elements shortly after the big bang.
 The light elements include HYDROGEN ( H ) and its isotope deuterium ( H ), helium-3 ( He), helium-4 ( He), and
Lithium-7 ( Li ).

THE ORIGIN OF THE HEAVY ELEMENTS

 Which elements emerged from the stellar nucleosynthesis?

Hydrogen atoms first produced in the big bang would need additional protons and neutrons to become helium of
lithium. In nucleus are held together by a strong force, which overcomes and opposes the repulsion between protons.
Protons can also be combined with neutrons to form heavier nuclei in a process called NUCLEAR
FUSION.

 Heavier elements formed inside the stars and scattered in elements came into being during and after the
explosions. Nucleosynthesis in stars is called STELLAR NUCLEOSYNTHESIS.

NUCLEAR FUSION REACTIONS.

Two main types of nuclear reactions can emit large amount of energy: NUCLEAR FUSION and NUCLEAR FISSION.

NUCLEAR FISSION refers to the splitting of a heavy nucleus into lighter nuclei.

NUCLEAR FUSION- is a reaction through which light nuclei combine to form heavier nucleus.

INTRODUCTION TO NUCLEAR REACTIONS

NUCLEAR REACTIONS- are processes in which a nucleus either combines with another nucleus or split into smaller
nuclei. These process involve the emission of energetic particles of an atom a phenomenon known as
RADIOACTIVITY.

The following are the most common type of nuclear reactions

COSMIC ORIGIN OF ELEMENTS

THE existence of matter is believed to have started with the birth of the universe. The most widely accepted
explanation to the origin of the universe is the big bang theory.

THE BIG BANG NUCLEOSYNTHESIS

STELLAR FORMATION AND EVOLUTION

The Universe continuously expanded for several of years and the cloud of hydrogen and helium gases
condensed to form stars, including the sun. Over millions or years, the stars made of hydrogen became hotter and
denser. During the stellar formation, nuclear reactions continued which produced elements heavier than lithium. The
light elements combined to form atoms of oxygen, carbon, neon, silicon and iron.

Starting from small, yellow, young stars, successive nuclear reactions occurred until it becomes a giant red star.
The reactions involved in the formation of each new element happened in regions or layers called fusion shells.

Young yellow stars made up of hydrogen were fuelled by the energy released from the fusion of hydrogen nuclei to
form helium. In the outer layer of a yellow star, the burning of hydrogen through nuclear fusion produced helium.
Once enough Helium was produced, these nuclei become concentrated at the core of the star making the temperature
hotter at the region. Hydrogen fusion continued, but in a shell surrounding the helium core. The reactions in the
hydrogen fusion shells are shown as:

When the core reached the temperature enough for the helium fusion to occur, helium burring began. The outer
temperature then became colder than the core, which caused the star to become red. Be formed from the helium
fusion. Another He nucleus with Be forming C. These reactions happened in the helium fusion shell, beneath h
hydrogen fusion shell.

The carbon nuclei produced became more concentrated at the centre of the star, as helium was earlier. This produced
a carbon core, that when it reached a certain temperature to allow carbon fusion, it produced Neon within the carbon
fusion shell. Nuclear reactions that occurred in this shell include the following:
Neon then became concentrated at the core, then underwent fusion to produce oxygen.

When oxygen became concentrated at the core, nuclear fusion continued, producing Silicon.

The fusion of Si produced radioactive Ni which then developed into Fe. More nuclear fusions happened between
nuclei to form the other elements. However the productions of elements stopped when Iron was formed. Since iron is
the most stable nuclei, it cannot undergo nuclear fusion.

In all of the previous reactions, a great amount of energy is produced , enough to fuel more nuclear reactions.
However, in order to produce elements heavier than iron, energy input is necessary. At this point, the star has already
exhausted its nuclear fuel.

STELLAR EXPLOSION

As the Red Giant star exhausted the nuclear fuel of light elements, its core started to collapse that eventually
led to the explosion of stars.

This violent explosion called SUPERNOVA released a huge amount of nuclear energy and produced, through neutron
capture and radioactive decay, other elements heavier than iron.

Lesson 1.3 Atomic Number and Atomic Mass

Main Idea: The number of subatomic particles in an atom is reflected by is subatomic number and
atomic mass.
EQ: Why are atomic numbers significant in the study of elements?

Prediction and Discovery of New Elements

Scientists have been working on a periodic table to arrange the elements according to their properties.
Dmitry Mendeleev- a Russian Chemist in 1870 arranged the 65 known elements during that time according to
increasing atomic mass so that he could obtain a periodic recurrence of elements with similar chemical properties.

The discovery of the subatomic particles prompted other scientists to study the variations in the characteristics of
elements.
Gwyn Jeffreys Moseley- an English Physicists and Chemist experimentally found that different metals bombarded
with electrons produced varying frequencies of X-rays. He attributed these results to the differences in the positive
charge in the nucleus of the elements. He correlated the frequencies to whole numbers, which he assigned to each
element- Atomic numbers.
CONCLUSION: The modern periodic table is arranged according to the PERIODIC LAW- states that there exists a
periodic repetition of physical and chemical properties when elements are arranged in order of increasing atomic
number.
Through time many elements were discovered, while some are still being synthesized in the laboratories.
*********************************************

Each element in the periodic table of elements has its own atomic symbol, which is represented by either a capital
Letter, or a capital letter with one or two lowercase letters.

The atomic number (Z), mass number (A), and a charge (q) are often included with the atomic symbol. The mass
number is equal to the sum of protons (p) and neutrons (n).
N= A-Z
The charge (q) is obtained by subtracting the number of electrons from the number of protons.
q=p-e
The atomic number serves as the identity of the atom. In neutral atom, the number of proton is equal to the number
of electrons. Therefore, the atomic number also indicates the number of electrons in a neutral atom.

ISOTOPES
 In Dalton’s atomic theory, all the atoms of a given element are identical. Every atoms of a given element does
have the same number of protons and electrons. But every atoms of a given element does not have the same
number of neutrons.

ISOTOPES- they are atoms of the same element that does not have the same numbers of neutrons and different mass
numbers.

In most cases, atoms of a given elements do not have the same mass. An example is hydrogen.

SAMPLE PROBLEM:

Determine the number of protons, electrons and neutrons as well as the mass number of the following isotopes.
28 +4
1. Silicon -30 2. 14 Si

Solution: The mass number of Si is 30 since it is already given from the representation. According to the periodic
table, the number of protons and electrons will have the same value (14) since the atom is neutral. The number of
neutrons is calculated by subtracting 14 from 30, which is equal to 16.

Solution: As given, the mass number (A) is equal to 28 and the number of proton is 14 The number of neutrons is
calculated by subtracting 14 from 28, which is equal to 14. Since the atoms is not neutral, the number of electrons will
not be equal to 14. Since the charge is +4, there will be 4 fewer electrons than protons. The number of electrons is
calculated by subtracting 4 from 14, which is equal to 10.

Sample Problem:

An isotope 40 20 Ca is produced during stellar evolution. How many protons, neutrons and electrons are there in one
atom of 40 20 Ca?

Practice Problem:

The burning of the carbon in stars is represented by the following reactions:

4 12 16 0
2 He + 6 C ------ 8O + 0Y
Find the number of subatomic particles in each species involved in the reaction.

IONS
You may know that isotopes form through nuclear reactions. From the terms itself, nuclear reactions mainly involve
the nucleus of a particle, which consists of the protons and the neutrons. There are reactions, however, that involve
only the electrons that are found outside of the nucleus. These reactions are referred to as Chemical Reactions.

During chemical reactions, the number of protons remains the same in the atomic nucleus, but the electrons may be
lost by an atom and gained by another. The loss and gain of one or more electrons leads to the formation of an atom
with a net positive and negative charge. These charged atoms are called IONS. Positive- Cations; negative- Anions.
q=p-e
CHAPTER 2

QUANTUM MODEL OF THE ATOMS

Main idea: ELECTRONS HAVE WAVE-LIKE PROPERTIES
ESSENTIAL QUESTION: Why do we assign quantum numbers to electrons?
 Light has both wave-like and particle-like properties.
 1924, French physicist LOUIE de BROGLIE initially thought that electrons behave like a wave
particle.
 Bohr’s model- behave more like a wave.
 Erwin Schrodinger- Austrian physicist describes the behaviour of electrons.
 1927- German physicist Werner Heisenberg in is UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE , it is impossible to
determine simultaneously the position and the momentum of an electron.
QUANTUM NUMBERS
 ATOMIC ORBITAL AND PROPERTIES OF ELECTRONS IN THOSE ORBITALS.
PRINCIPAL QUANTUM NUMBERS
 The Principal Quantum number (n) indicates the size of the orbital.
 The bigger- greater average distance of electron from the nucleus, thus the larger the orbital and
the atom.
 Main energy level occupied by an electron.
 Ex. n= 1 occupies 1st energy level closest tot he nucleus.
 More than 1 e- can occupy same energy level in same shell.
AZIMUTHAL QUANTUM NUMBERS
 Azimuthal quantum number (l), also known as angular momentum quantum number corresponds
to the shape of the orbital.
 All values for l include 0 and all positive integers less than or equal to n-1.
 Letters are assigned to the orbital depending on the l values.
MAGNETIC QUANTUM NUMBERS
 ml Indicates the orientation of an orbital around the nucleus.
 For a particular value of l, there will be (2l + 1) possible values of m l .
 values for ml are integers from –l to +l
Ml also gives an idea about the number of orientations of orbital belonging to a particular sub shell.
SPIN QUANTUM NUMBERS
 ms indicates the spin of the and may have only 2 values ( + ½ and – ½).
 The + and – signs refer to the orientation of the spin, not the charges.
 Upward or downward direction.

Electron distribution
Main Idea: Electrons fill the orbital by following the certain principle.

ESSENTIAL QUESTION: Why are rules followed in making notations?

ELECTRON DISTRIBUTION
 Electron distribution is important in understanding chemical reactions.
Electron configuration and orbital diagram

1. ELECTRON CONFIGURATION
* Uses symbols of the orbital and the number of electrons (written as superscripts) that occupy each
orbital.
2. ORBITAL DIAGRAM
Consist of boxes and arrows that represent the orbital and the electrons respectively.

 The basic electron distribution is made when an atom is at its GROUND STATE.
 That the atom’s electron occupy the lowest possible energy levels.
 Representing electron distribution follows three general RULES.
THE RULES
1. AUFBAU PRINCIPLE- states that electrons should occupy first the orbital with lower energy level
before those with higher energy level.
AUFBAU- German noun – “construction” or “building-up”.
2. PAULI EXCLUSION
 Formulated by Austrian physicist WOLFGANG PAULI in 1925.
This emphasizes the significance of the spin quantum numbers.
Best explained using orbital diagram.
 Is the quantum mechanical principle which states that two or more identical fermions (particles
with half-integer spin) cannot occupy the same quantum state within a quantum system
simultaneously.
3. HUND’S RULE
Suggest that the most stable arrangements of electrons in sub shells is the one with the greatest
number of parallel spins.

Lesson 3.1 CHEMICAL BONDING IN A NUT SHELL

Main Idea: Chemical bonds form when atoms lose, accept, or share electrons.

Essential Question: Why are most atoms held by chemical bonds?

Most atoms exists only by themselves are less stable compared to they are bonded with other atoms in a compound.
By combining with each other through chemical bond, the atoms become more stable. Some compounds including
those that contain carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, and fluorine, are more stable when the atoms involved form a “ complete
octet” in which the valence electrons s and p orbital of an atom has eight electrons. This is called octet rule.

The noble gases do not need to combine with other compounds to attain stability, and are thus relatively unreactive or
“inert”.

CHEMICAL BOND- is an electrical attraction between nuclei and valence electrons of an atoms and which binds atom
together. Oftentimes this type of bond is called an intermolecular force.

THREE TYPES OF CHEMICAL BOND

1. IONIC BOND- results from the transfer of one or more valence electrons from one atom to another. This bond
exists between a metal that has the tendency to lose electron, and a non-metal that has a tendency to accept
electrons.
2. COVALENT BOND- sharing of electron pair between atoms. This type of bonding occurs between two non-
metals.
a. POLAR COVALENT- bond in which bonded atoms have an unequal sharing of electrons.
b. NON POLAR COVALENT BOND- is a bond in which electrons are equally shared by the bonded atoms.
3. METALLIC BOND- bonds holding metal atoms together.

ELECTRONEGATIVITY- is the measure of the tendency of the atom to attract electrons towards itself.

LESSON 3.2 SUBSTANCES AND THIER PROPERTIES

MAIN IDEA: Substances have different properties that depend on their chemical structure.

ESSENTIAL QUESTION: What renders the properties of substances?

A chemical compound consisting of cation and anion is classified as ionic compound. The positive and negative ions
are combined in a proportion such that a neutral compound is obtained, meaning the net charge is zero.

The composition of a compound is represented using a chemical formula.

CHEMICAL FORMULA- presents all the atoms in a compound and their relative numbers using element symbols and
numerical subscripts. An ionic compound is represented with the use of formula unit.

For example, one formula unit of sodium, chloride ( NaCl) consist of one sodium cation and one chloride anion. In the
case of Barium Chloride (BaCl2 ), one barium cation requires two chloride anions to achieve electrical neutrality.

MOLECULAR COMPOUNDS- refers to a chemical compound with molecules as its simplest units.

LESSON 4.2 RATES OF REACTION

Key Concept:

1. What does a reaction rate tell you?

2. What factors cause reaction rates to change?

Reaction rate- is the rate at which reactants change into products over time. Reaction rates tell you how fast a
reaction is going. That is how, fast the reactant is being consumed, how fast the products are being produced, or how
fast the energy is being absorbed or released

FACTOR AFFECTING THE RATE OF REACTION

1. Temperature
a. Suppose you are frying an egg in a frying pan. What happens if you increase the heat under the pan? The
hotter the pan, the faster the egg will be cooked.
 b. An increase in temperature will increase the rate of reaction, while the decrease of temperature will also
decrease the rate of reaction.
c. Increasing the temperature of a substance causes its particles to move faster, on average. Particles that move
faster are both likely to collide and more likely to react. If the number of collision that produces reaction
increases, then the reaction rate increases.
2. Surface Area
a. The smaller the particle size, the greater the surface area. An increase in surface area increases the exposure of
reactants to one another.
b. The greater the exposure, the greater the collisions that involves reacting particles.
c. Increasing the surface area, increase the reaction rate.
3. Stirring
a. You can increase the reaction of reactants by stirring them.
b. Collision between particles of the reactants is more likely to happen. Stirring will generally affect the reaction
rates.
4. Concentration
a. Concentration refers to the number of particles in a given volume.
b. The more particles in the given volume, the more opportunities that are present in a given volume, the more
opportunities for collision.
5. Catalyst
a. A catalyst is a substance that affects the rate of reaction rate without being used up in the reaction.
b. Chemists often used catalysts to speed up the process or enable the reaction to occur at a lower rate.

Exothermic and Endothermic Reactions

Exothermic- A chemical reaction that releases energy to fuel its surroundings.

Endothermic- A chemical reaction that absorbs energy from its surroundings.

Lesson 3.3 Intermolecular Forces of Attraction

Main Idea: Intermolecular forces of attraction are weak forces that exists between molecules.

EQ: How do intermolecular forces of attraction define the properties and uses of matter?

Such properties of matter, along with density, hardness, solubility and physical state, among others are referred to as
physical properties of matter.

Physical Properties- are characteristics of matter that are observed without changing its chemical composition.

Intermolecular Forces of Attraction- force of attraction that exist between the molecules that comprise matter.

Types of IMFA

There are several types of IMFA. Common in all is the fact that they arise from attractions between positive and
negative electrical charges. These attractions are collectively referred to as van der Waals Forces, named after Dutch
Physicist Johannes Diederik van der Waals.

1. DIPOLE-DIPOLE FORCES
 a. IMFA acting on polar molecules. These are short-ranged forces that exists between molecules that are
very near to each other.
b. DIPOLE-INDUCED DIPOLE – a polar molecule can induce a temporary dipole in a nonpolar molecule
by temporarily attracting its electron. This is considered weak than dipole-dipole attraction.
2. HYDROGEN BONDS
a. Is a type of special dipole-dipole interaction. It results when a hydrogen atom bonded to a highly
electronegative atom like nitrogen, oxygen, or fluorine.
3. LONDON DISPERSION FORCES
a. German Physicist Fritz Wolfgang London suggested that IMFA exist between all atoms and molecules.
These forces result from the constant movement of electrons in molecules, which consequently create
instantaneous dipoles.
b. Weakest type of IMFA and only exist when atoms are in very close range.

APPLICATIONS OF IMFA

Physical properties, partly influenced by IMFA are important consideration when designing different materials or
equipment for various uses.

1. MEDICAL DEVICES
a. Medical implants and prosthetics, are devices its tissues placed inside or on the surface of the body,
should be carefully designed such that they will not cause infections, trigger allergic reactions, or fail to
do their function.
2. Construction Materials in construction correct combination of materials provides the strength and stability of a
structure.
3. SPORTS EQUIPMENT
a. Aside from structural design of a sports equipment, it is equally important to choose the correct
materials to use for each part of the equipment to achieve its optimum performance.
4. ELECTRONIC DEVICE
a. Material characteristics are important in designing electronic devices and household gadgets. Metal
alloys are used for electrical conduction, while light plastics are used for coverings.

LESSON 3.4 The Chemistry of Carbon, The Chemistry of Life

Main Idea: Living things are made up of organic compound.

EQ: What is the significance of chemical bonding to life?

Organic compounds that contain only hydrogen and carbon are called HYDROCARBONS. The covalent bonds
between carbon and hydrogen are rich in energy making organic compounds very good fuels. Hydrocarbons are
considered non polar because of the most equal distribution of electrons attributed to relatively similar electro
negativities of hydrogen.

Hydroxyl group- a carbon bonded to oxygen (-OH). This group is a type of a functional group.

FUNCTIONAL GROUP- is specific arrangements of atoms within an organic molecule and which impart the physical
properties and chemical reactivity of the molecule in which they are found.

BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES- substances that are considered building blocks of living organism, also termed as bio
molecules. The living organisms are composed of millions of different types of molecules, each with their own distinct
chemical composition, shape and function. However majority of these are macromolecules that can be grouped into
four general classifications.

1. CARBOHYDRATES- are chains of organic molecules with a 1:2:1 mole ratio of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.
The simplest formula for carbohydrate is (CH 2O)n where the subscript n refers to the number of carbon atoms.
Carbohydrates are important source of energy used in mainly metabolic activities.
 2. LIPIDS- are organic molecules that are insoluble in water because of their lack of many polar and H-
bonding functional groups. Lipids have very high proportion of carbon-hydrogen bonds. Lipids serve as an
effective cellular membrane component. They also serve as storage of energy.

3. PROTEINS- are complex molecules composed of one or more chains of amino acids linked by peptide bonds.
PEPTIDE bonds- are type of a covalent bond.
AMINO ACIDS- are building blocks of proteins. It consist of a central carbon with units bonded to it- an amino
group (-NH2) a carboxyl group (-COOH) and a side chain (R).

4. NUCLEIC ACID- acts as a storage of genetic information in cells. Common examples are DNA and RNA. Nucleic
acids are made u of repeating units of monomers known as nucleotides. These nucleotides are composed of
sugar, phosphate and nitrogenous base that are covalently bonded together.

LESSON 4.1 : UNDERSTANDING CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS

Main Idea: Chemical reactions are represented by chemical equations.

EQ: Why should chemical reactions be represented?

MOTIVATION: Chemical reactions occur almost every day. Plants use carbon dioxide and release oxygen through
photosynthesis. Vehicles burn fuels and give off exhaust gases. Metal pipes rust, and marble statues corrode. Even
our stomach breaks down food into nutrients.

Chemical reaction – is a process through which one or more substances are changed into different substances. The
original substance is called the REACTANT, and the resulting substance is called the PRODUCT.

Evidences of chemical reactions: formation of bubbles- evidence of producing a new gas during reactions. Cloudiness
indicates formation of new solid substance; change in temperature- can sometimes accompanied by light production.
Change in colour can also signify chemical change.

REPRESENTING CHEMICAL REACTION

Chemical reactions are represented by chemical equations. It consist of symbols and formulas, it shows what
happens during the reaction. The equation present the identities and relative amounts of the reactants and products
involved in chemical reaction.
Example. 4Fe + 3O2 (g) ------- 2 Fe2 O3 (s) 2KClO3 (s) ------ 2KCl (s) + 3O2 (g)

Notice the types of numbers in the equations- big numbers written before the formulas and the small ones after some
elements in the formulas. The big ones are called coefficients, which gives an idea of the number of molecules or
formulas units of a substance in the reaction. The small numbers are termed subscripts, which tell how many atoms
are present in a specific compound.

Chemical reactions may be written in two ways – through a word equation or a chemical equation.
1. Word equations present the reactants and products of a chemical reaction using words.
2. Chemical equation- converts the word equation by replacing the names of the reactants and products with their
corresponding symbols or formulas.
Ex. Consider the reaction for hydrogen chloride gas formation. This gas is produces ytrdxsq

Hydrogen gas + chlorine gas H2(g) + Cl2(g) ------- HCl(g)

Self Check: What constitutes a complete chemical equation? What characterizes chemical reactions?

Sample Problem: After heating a metal strip of magnesium (Mg) in the presence of oxygen (O 2)gas, a white powder
was seen on the wire gauze. The white powder was found to be magnesium oxide (MgO). Using this information,
write the word equation and chemical equation representing the reaction.
Word: solid magnesium metal + oxygen gas ---- solid magnesium oxide
Chemical equation: Mg (s) + O2 (g) ------- MgO (s)

Sample Problem:
1. Solid potassium (K) metal and chlorine (Cl2) gas combine to form potassium chloride (KCl) powder.
2. The reaction between aqueous calcium hydroxide [Ca(OH)2] and carbon dioxide (CO2) gas produces calcium
carbonate (CaCO3) precipitates and liquid water H2O.
TYPES OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS
1. COMBINATION REACTION- also called the synthesis reaction, 2 or more substances combine to form a new
compound.
a. A + B = AB Ex. 2Na (s) + Cl2(g) ---- 2NaCl(s)

2. DECOMPOSITION REACTION- involves breaking down of a single compound to produce 2 or more simpler
substances.
a. AB ---- A + B Ex. 2HsO (l) ---- 2H2(g) + O2 (g)

3. SINGLE REPLACEMENT REACTION- or the substitution reaction, one element replaces another element in a
compound.
a. AB + X ----- AX + B Ex. 2KBr(aq) + Cl2(g) ------ 2KCl(aq) + Br2 (g)

4. DOUBE REPLACEMENT REACTION- also called a metathesis or double decomposition reaction.

a. AX + BY ----- AY + BX Ex. AgNO(aq) + NaCl(aaq) ---- AgCl(s) + NaNO3(aq)

BALANCING CHEMICAL EQUATIONS

Chemical equations should meet several requirements for it to be considered correct. It should show correct
symbols and formulas for the reactants and products.

The LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MASS- states that in a chemical reaction, the total amount of products is equal to
the amount of the reactants. This follows that the relative amounts of reactant and products represented in a
chemical equation must be adjusted so that numbers of each type of atom are the same at both sides of the equation.
This process is called balancing an equation and is carried out by inserting appropriate coefficients before each
chemical symbol.

Sample Problem: Ammonia, a colorless, pungent gas is widely used in pharmaceuticals and agricultural industries. It
is also used as an ingredient in commercial cleaning products. Ammonia (NH3) gas is produced from hydrogen (H2)
gas and Nitrogen (N2) gas.

Solution: 3H2 + N2 ------ 2NH3

Give the balanced chemical equation for the following reactions:

1. The reaction between solid iron (Fe) metal and chlorine (Cl2) gas produces powder ferric chloride (FeCl3).
2. When solid aluminium bromide (AlBR3) chemically combines with chlorine (Cl2) gas, aluminium chloride
(AlCl3) powder and bromine (Br2) gas are produced.

LESSON 4.2 RATES OF REACTION

Key Concept:

3. What does a reaction rate tell you?

4. What factors cause reaction rates to change?

Reaction rate- is the rate at which reactants change into products over time. Reaction rates tell you how fast a
reaction is going. That is how, fast the reactant is being consumed, how fast the products are being produced, or how
fast the energy is being absorbed or released

FACTOR AFFECTING THE RATE OF REACTION

6. Temperature
a. Suppose you are frying an egg in a frying pan. What happens if you increase the heat under the pan?
The hotter the pan, the faster the egg will be cooked.
b. An increase in temperature will increase the rate of reaction, while the decrease of temperature will also
decrease the rate of reaction.
 c. Increasing the temperature of a substance causes its particles to move faster, on average. Particles
that move faster are both likely to collide and more likely to react. If the number of collision that
produces reaction increases, then the reaction rate increases.
7. Surface Area
a. The smaller the particle size, the greater the surface area. An increase in surface area increases the
exposure of reactants to one another.
b. The greater the exposure, the greater the collisions that involves reacting particles.
c. Increasing the surface area, increase the reaction rate.
8. Stirring
a. You can increase the reaction of reactants by stirring them.
b. Collision between particles of the reactants is more likely to happen. Stirring will generally affect the
reaction rates.
9. Concentration
a. Concentration refers to the number of particles in a given volume.
b. The more particles in the given volume, the more opportunities that are present in a given volume, the
more opportunities for collision.

10.Catalyst
a. A catalyst is a substance that affects the rate of reaction rate without being used up in the reaction.
b. Chemists often used catalysts to speed up the process or enable the reaction to occur at a lower rate.

Exothermic and Endothermic Reactions

Exothermic- A chemical reaction that releases energy to fuel its surroundings.

Endothermic- A chemical reaction that absorbs energy from its surroundings.

Lesson 3.3 Intermolecular Forces of Attraction

Main Idea: Intermolecular forces of attraction are weak forces that exists between molecules.

EQ: How do intermolecular forces of attraction define the properties and uses of matter?

Such properties of matter, along with density, hardness, solubility and physical state, among others are referred to as
physical properties of matter.

Physical Properties- are characteristics of matter that are observed without changing its chemical composition.

Intermolecular Forces of Attraction- force of attraction that exist between the molecules that comprise matter.

Types of IMFA

There are several types of IMFA. Common in all is the fact that they arise from attractions between positive and
negative electrical charges. These attractions are collectively referred to as van der Waals Forces, named after Dutch
Physicist Johannes Diederik van der Waals.

4. DIPOLE-DIPOLE FORCES
a. IMFA acting on polar molecules. These are short-ranged forces that exists between molecules that are
very near to each other.
b. DIPOLE-INDUCED DIPOLE – a polar molecule can induce a temporary dipole in a nonpolar molecule
by temporarily attracting its electron. This is considered weak than dipole-dipole attraction.

5. HYDROGEN BONDS
 a. Is a type of special dipole-dipole interaction. It results when a hydrogen atom bonded to a highly
electronegative atom like nitrogen, oxygen, or fluorine.
6. LONDON DISPERSION FORCES
a. German Physicist Fritz Wolfgang London suggested that IMFA exist between all atoms and molecules.
These forces result from the constant movement of electrons in molecules, which consequently create
instantaneous dipoles.
b. Weakest type of IMFA and only exist when atoms are in very close range.

APPLICATIONS OF IMFA

Physical properties, partly influenced by IMFA are important consideration when designing different materials or
equipment for various uses.

5. MEDICAL DEVICES
a. Medical implants and prosthetics, are devices its tissues placed inside or on the surface of the body,
should be carefully designed such that they will not cause infections, trigger allergic reactions, or fail to
do their function.
6. Construction Materials in construction correct combination of materials provides the strength and stability of a
structure.
7. SPORTS EQUIPMENT
a. Aside from structural design of a sports equipment, it is equally important to choose the correct
materials to use for each part of the equipment to achieve its optimum performance.
8. ELECTRONIC DEVICE
a. Material characteristics are important in designing electronic devices and household gadgets. Metal
alloys are used for electrical conduction, while light plastics are used for coverings.

LESSON 3.4 The Chemistry of Carbon, The Chemistry of Life

Main Idea: Living things are made up of organic compound.

EQ: What is the significance of chemical bonding to life?

Organic compounds that contain only hydrogen and carbon are called HYDROCARBONS. The covalent bonds
between carbon and hydrogen are rich in energy making organic compounds very good fuels. Hydrocarbons are
considered non polar because of the most equal distribution of electrons attributed to relatively similar electro
negativities of hydrogen.

Hydroxyl group- a carbon bonded to oxygen (-OH). This group is a type of a functional group.

FUNCTIONAL GROUP- is specific arrangements of atoms within an organic molecule and which impart the physical
properties and chemical reactivity of the molecule in which they are found.

BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES- substances that are considered building blocks of living organism, also termed as bio
molecules. The living organisms are composed of millions of different types of molecules, each with their own distinct
chemical composition, shape and function. However majority of these are macromolecules that can be grouped into
four general classifications.

5. CARBOHYDRATES- are chains of organic molecules with a 1:2:1 mole ratio of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.
The simplest formula for carbohydrate is (CH 2O)n where the subscript n refers to the number of carbon atoms.
Carbohydrates are important source of energy used in mainly metabolic activities.

6. LIPIDS- are organic molecules that are insoluble in water because of their lack of many polar and H-
bonding functional groups. Lipids have very high proportion of carbon-hydrogen bonds. Lipids serve as an
effective cellular membrane component. They also serve as storage of energy.

7. PROTEINS- are complex molecules composed of one or more chains of amino acids linked by peptide bonds.
PEPTIDE bonds- are type of a covalent bond.
AMINO ACIDS- are building blocks of proteins. It consist of a central carbon with units bonded to it- an amino
group (-NH2) a carboxyl group (-COOH) and a side chain (R).
8. NUCLEIC ACID- acts as a storage of genetic information in cells. Common examples are DNA and RNA. Nucleic
acids are made u of repeating units of monomers known as nucleotides. These nucleotides are composed of
sugar, phosphate and nitrogenous base that are covalently bonded together.