[TRANS] UNIT I: ELECTRONIC STRUCTURE, HYBRIDIZATION, AND PERIODIC TRENDS

OUTLINE
I The Atom
II Fundamental Aspects of Atomic Structure
III Electronic Configurations
IV Periodic Trends

THE ATOM
OVERVIEW OF CHEMISTRY
Chemistry: The study of matter and the changes that it Figure 1.0 – Classifications of Matter
undergoes

Matter: Anything that occupies space (volume) and has

mass
States of Matter
There are three main states of matter: Solid, Liquid, and
Gas.
When substances changes state (from one to another), it is
because the spacing within the particles of the substances
is changing due to a gain or loss of energy.
Concept Review Exercises:
1.) Explain the differences between physical properties
of matter and the chemical properties of matter?
2.) What is the difference between a heterogeneous
mixture and a homogeneous mixture?
3.) Give at least two examples of a phase change and
state the phases involved in each.
OVERVIEW OF CHEMISTRY (CONT.)

Example: When ice is heated and its particles gain energy, it Properties of Matter
melts into water and eventually boils, turning into steam Physical Properties:
(SOLID -> LIQUID -> GAS) • Characteristics that can be measured without
changing the composition of the sample.
Classifications of Matter • Examples: Mass, Color, and Volume (amount of
Matter can be classified into the following: space occupied)
• Substances • Physical properties can be INTENSIVE or
• Mixtures EXTENSIVE

Table 1.0 – Classifications of Matter Table 2.0 – Intensive and Extensive Properties
Substances Mixtures Extensive Intensive
Matter whose physical and Composed of two or more Vary/depends on the amount Does not depend on the
chemical properties are the substances whose composition of the substance amount of substance
same all throughout the may or may not remain the same
sample; has a constant all throughout. Example: Mass, weight, and Example: Color, boiling point,
composition. volume melting point, electrical
Element Simplest Homogeneous Also known conductivity, physical state at a
form of Mixture as solutions; given temperature, and density
matter; substances
cannot be mixed evenly. Chemical Properties:
broken down
• Characteristic ability of a substance to react to form
into simpler
elements new substances
normally. • Example: Flammability, susceptibility to corrosion
Compound Combination Heterogeneous Substances (chemical reactions)
of two or Mixture are not mixed
more evenly and Changes in Matter
elements that have
can still be boundaries Table 3.0 – Physical and Chemical Changes
broken down between
into said them.
Physical Changes Chemical Changes
elements. Changes in which no bonds Occurs when bonds are
Example: Oil are broken or formed (no broken and/or formed
Example: and water, chemical reaction takes between molecules or
CH4, H2O, halo-halo place); superficial. atoms
HCl

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 Include: One substance with a set ■ Proven false along the way as atoms can
• Changes of state of properties is turned into still be subdivided into their subatomic
(solid, liquid, and gas) a different substance with particles
• Separation of a mixture different properties. ● John Dalton: Famous for his “Billiard Ball Model,” and
• Physical deformation came up with various postulates regarding atoms.
(cutting, denting, and Include: ○ All matter is composed of extremely small particles
stretching) • Burning paper (forms called atoms
• Making solutions (salt- CO2 + H2O) ○ Atoms of a given element are identical in size,
water solution) • Formation of water mass, and other properties; atoms of different
(through chemical elements are different in size, mass, and other
bonding) properties
• Corrosion/rusting ○ Atoms cannot be subdivided, created, nor
destroyed
○ Atoms of different elements can combine in simple
● Atom: The smallest unit of matter, which is composed of whole number ratios to form chemical compounds
the following subatomic particles: ○ In chemical reactions, atoms are combined,
○ Protons: positively-charged separated, or rearranged (not created nor
○ Neutrons: neutral destroyed)
○ Electrons: negatively-charged
There were changes made to Dalton’s Atomic
FUNDAMENTAL ASPECTS OF ATOMIC STRUCTURE Theory:
■ An atom is composed of smaller particles
(protons, neutrons, and electrons
■ All atoms of an element are not always
identical (e.g. isotopes, elements with
differing mass numbers)
Figure 2.0 – Fundamental Properties of Subatomic Particles ■ Through nuclear reactions, atoms of one
element can be changed into atoms of
Table 4.0 – Atomic Concepts
another element
CONCEPTS TO REMEMBER
Mass number (A) Protons + Neutrons
Atomic number Protons (# of protons for an element will Other theories on the concept of atoms that evolved:
(Z) always be constant)
Neutral atom # of protons = # of electrons ● Thomson Model: Atoms consist of a positively jelly-like
Cations Positively-charged atoms; # of protons is mass with negative electrons scattered through it; also
greater than # of electrons known as the plum-pudding model.
Anions Negatively-charged atoms; # of electrons is
greater than # of protons
Isotopes Atoms of the same element with DIFFERENT
MASS NUMBERS (due to difference in the
number of neutrons)

Figure 3.0 – Plum-Pudding Model

● Rutherford Model: Developed the nuclear model; most of

the mass of the atom is concentrated in a dense, positively-
charged nucleus; electrons revolve around the nucleus in
orbits.

Figure 3.0 – Example of Atomic Concepts

ATOMIC MODELS

● Democritus: Coined the term “atomos.”

○ Atomos means “tiny, indestructible particle.”
Figure 4.0 – Rutherford Model

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● Bohr Model: Proposed the “Planetary Model,” similar to ○ ms = -1/2; + ½
Rutherford’s.
○ Electrons can occupy only certain spherical orbits
called energy levels or shells, arranged
concentrically around the nucleus
○ Principal energy level is quantized
○ Lowest energy level is called ground state energy
level

ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATIONS
● Describes the manner in which electrons are arranged in an
atom.

THREE GUIDING PRINCIPLES

● Aufbau’s Building Up Principle

○ Orbitals with lower energy are filled up first.

● Pauli’s Exclusion Principle

Figure 5.0 – Computation of Electron Energy
● Quantum-Mechanical Model: Electrons exhibit both
particle and wave-like properties, depending on the
circumstances.
○ Schrodinger: Developed an equation that related
the wave properties associated with electrons to
their energies; the wave function describes the
region within which an electron is most likely to be
found, the orbital.
○ Orbital: An energy state for an electron described
by three quantum numbers, n, l, and m
QUANTUM NUMBERS
● Set of numbers used to describe the position and energy
of an electron in an atom.
○ Principal quantum number
○ Orbital angular momentum/Azimuthal quantum
number
○ Magnetic quantum number
○ Electron spin quantum number
○ Not more than two electrons can occupy an orbital
● Hund’s Rule
○ In degenerate orbitals, electrons are distributed
singly before being paired
● Example: Write the electronic configuration of N, which has
an atomic number of 7. Determine the number of valence
electrons and number of unpaired electrons
○ Electronic configuration: 1s2 2s2 2p3
○ Valence electrons: 5
○ Unpaired electrons: 3
PERIODIC TABLE AND PERIODIC TRENDS
● The Aufbau process allows us to predict the electronic
configuration of an atom if we know how many electrons
there are in the atom.
● The periodic table can also be used as a tool for
prediction.

Figure 6.0 – Quantum Numbers

Figure 7.0 – Periodic Table
● Example: First energy level is occupied by 2 electrons
● The periodic table is divided into columns of atoms with
○ n=1
similar electron configuration.
○ I=0
○ ml = 0

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● Atoms with similar electron configurations have similar ○ Electron affinity
properties. ○ Atomic radius
○ Melting point
CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS ○ Metallic character

PERIODIC TREND DESCRIPTION

Table 5.0 – Classification of Elements
REPRESENTATIVE
ELEMENTS
Group A; has progressive
addition of electrons in the s
and p.
Group I: Alkali metals
Group II: Alkaline earth
metals
Group VII: Halogen family
Group VIII: Noble elements
or inert elements
KEY:
Group no.: Number of
valence electrons
Period: Highest energy level
occupied by electrons
Atomic radius Decreases across a period; increases
TRANSITION ELEMENTS
from top to bottom.
Ionization energy Energy required to remove an electron
Group B; progressive from an atom.
addition of electrons in the d Electronegativity The ability of an atom to attract
orbitals and form colored electrons.
compounds when combined Metallic property Decreases from left to right
with other atoms. accompanied by a gradual change in the
oxidation state from positive to negative.
Metals: Lower left region of Electron affinity Measures the ease with which atoms
the periodic table gain electrons and form negative ions.
Non-metals: Upper right-
Metals lose electrons easily and
hand region of the periodic therefore has lower ionization energy
table than non-metals
Metalloids: B, Si, As, Te, At
Period: Highest value of n
Group no.:
A. US Convention:
Family A if last electron
is s or s and p

Family B if last electron

is d or f subshells

For family A, group

number = number of
valence electrons

For family B, group

number = number of (ns
+ (n-1) d electrons

B. IUPAC Notation:
Groups 1 and 2 = s block Figure 8.0 – Periodic Trends
Groups 13 – 18= p block

For s block, group

number= number of
valence electrons

For p block, group

number = 10 + number
of valence electrons

For the d block, group

number = number of ns
+ (n-1)d electrons

PERIODIC TRENDS
● Specific patterns that are present in the periodic table that
illustrate different aspects of a certain element, including its
size and its electronic properties.
● Major periodic trends include the following:
○ Electronegativity
○ Ionization energy

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