Matter Changes

Chemistry o Physical change – a

substance changes its
● Chemistry is the field of study
physical appearance but
concerned with the
not is chemical
characteristics, composition, and
composition (ex. Changes
transformations of matter
in physical state)
● Matter includes all things, both
living and non-living. o Chemical change – a
● To understand matter, we will substance undergoes a
look up on its fundamental change in chemical
nature, which includes the composition. It always
physical state, properties, and the involve conversion of the
changes it undergoes. material under
consideration into one or
Physical state
more new substances
o Solid – characterized by a
definite shape and a
definite volume
o Liquid – characterized by
an indefinite shape and a
define volume
o Gas – characterized by an
indefinite shape and an
indefinite volume
Property – distinguishing characteristic
of a substance that is used in its
identification and description
Pure Substances and Mixtures
● Physical property –
Matter can also be classified in terms of
characteristics that can be
its chemical composition as a pure
observed without changing the
substance or as a mixture
basic identity of the substance
(ex. Color, odor, physical state, • Pure substance – a single kind of
melting/boiling point, hardness) matter that cannot be separated
● Chemical property – describes into other kinds of matter by any
the way the substance undergoes physical means (ex. Pure water,
or resists change to form a new pure sugar)
substance
Elements and Compounds
 • Element – pure substance that • Physical combination of
cannot be broken down into substances produces a mixture
simpler pure substances by
• Chemical combination of
chemical means (ex. Gold, silver,
substances produces a
copper, hydrogen)
compound, a substance in which
• Compound – pure substance that combining entities are bound
can broken down into two or together
more simpler pure substances by
• No such binding occurs during
chemical means (ex. Water [H2O]
physical combination
can be broken down into the
elements hydrogen and oxygen)
• Mixture – physical combination
of two or more pure substances
in which each substance retains
its own chemical identity (ex.
Mixture of rock salt and ordinary
sand)
One characteristic of any mixture is
that its components can be •
separated using physical means
Mixtures
Elements
• Mixtures are subclassified as
heterogenous or homogenous • The discovery and isolation of the
117 known elements, the building
• Heterogenous mixture – a blocks for all matter, have taken
mixture that contains visible place over a period of several
different phases (parts), each of centuries. Most of the discoveries
which has different property have occurred since 1700, the
• Homogenous mixture – contains 1800s being the most active
only one visibly distinct phase period.
(part), which has a uniform • Each element has a unique
properties throughout (ex. name; some bear geographical
Sugar-water mixture) names (germanium, francium and
Compounds vs Mixtures polonium), some are named for
the planets (mercury, uranium,
• Remember, substances can be
neptunium), some reflect specific
combined either physically or
chemically
 properties of the element or of
the compounds containing it
• Chemical symbol - one- or
two-letter designation for an
element derived from the
element’s name
Atoms and Molecules
An atom is the smallest particle of an
element that can exist and still have the
properties of the element
• A sample of any element is
composed of atoms of a single
type, those of that element. In
contrast, a compound must have
two or more types of atoms
present, because by definition at
least two elements must be
present
• Free atoms are rarely
encountered in nature
• Atoms are almost always found
together in aggregates or clusters
A molecule is a group of two or
more atoms that functions a unit
because the atoms are tightly bound
together
• A diatomic molecule is a
molecule that contains two
atoms, a triatomic molecule
contains three, and so on.
• The atoms present may all be of
the same kind, or two or more
kinds may be present
• A homoatomic molecule is a
molecule in which all atoms
present are of the same kind.
Substances containing
homoatomic molecules are
elements (ex. Hydrogen [H2],
oxygen [O2], nitrogen [N2], and
chlorine [Cl2])
• A heteroatomic molecule is a
molecule in which two or more
kinds of atoms are present.
Substances containing
heteroatomic molecules are
compounds (ex. Water [H2O]
Compounds vs Molecules
• Compounds – molecules made of
atoms from different elements
• Molecules – atoms connected by
chemical bond
• ALL COMPOUNDS ARE
MOLECULES, BUT NOT ALL
MOLECULES ARE
COMPOUNDS
• H2 is a molecule, but not a
compound (only H is present)
• H2O is both a molecule and a
compound (H and O are present)
Chemical Formula
• A chemical formula is a notation
made up of the chemical symbols
of the elements present in a
compound and numerical
subscripts (located to the right of
each chemical symbol) that
indicate the number of atoms of
each element present in a
molecule of the compound.
• The chemical formula for the
compound aspirin is C9H8O4. This
 chemical formula conveys the
information that an aspirin
molecule contains three different
elements— carbon (C), hydrogen
(H), and oxygen (O)—and 21
atoms—9 carbon atoms, 8
hydrogen atoms, and 4 oxygen
atoms.
Measurement
• Measurement – determination of
the dimensions, capacity,
quantity, or extent of something
• There are two systems of
measurement that is used
commonly: The English system of
units and the metric system of
units
• Examples of units in the English
system are: inch, foot, pound,
quart, and gallon
• Examples of units in the metric
system are: gram, meter, and liter
Metric System Units
• In the metric system, there is one
base unit for each type of
measurement
• Prefixes are then added to the
base unit
• The meter (m) is the base unit of
length in the metric system (1 m
is equivalent to 1.09 yards)
• The gram (g) is the base unit of
mass in the metric system (28 g =
1 ounce, 454 g = 1 pound)
• The liter (L) is the base unit of
volume in the metric system (1 L
is equivalent to 1.06 quarts)
Measurements will always have a
degree of uncertainty or error
Significant Figures
• Uncertainty is indicated by the
number of significant figures
recorded
• Significant figures are digits in a
measurement that are known
with certainty plus one digit that is
estimated
Number of significant figures = all
certain digits + one estimated digit
• Guidelines for Determining
Significant Figures
1. All nonzero digits are
significant
2. Zeros may or may not be
significant
• Zeros at the
beginning of a
number are never
significant
Ex. 0.0141 has three significant figures
 • Zeros between
nonzero digits are
always significant
Ex. 3.063 has four significant figures
0.001004 has four significant figures
• Zeros at the end of
a number are
SIGNIFICANT if a
decimal point is
PRESENT in the
number
Ex. 56.00 has four significant figures
0.05050 has four significant figures
• Zeros at the end of
a number are NOT
SIGNIFICANT in
the number LACKS
an explicitly shown
decimal point
Ex. 59,000,000 has two significant
figures
6010 has three significant figures
Significant Figures and Mathematical
Operations
• 1. In multiplication and division,
the number of significant figures
in the answer is the same as the
number of significant figures in
the measurement that contains
the fewest significant figures
Multiplication
Scientific Notation
•
• 2. In addition and subtraction, the
answer is given with as many
significant figures as the
measurement with the least
number of decimal places
•
• Scientific Notation
• Scientific notation is a
numerical system in which
numbers are expressed in the
form A X 10n, where A is a
number with a single nonzero
digit to the left of the decimal
place and n is a whole number
• To convert from decimal
notation to scientific notation:
• 1. The decimal point in the
decimal number is moved to the
position behind the first nonzero
digit
• 2. The exponent for the
exponential term is equal to the
number of places the decimal
point has been moved. (positive
exponent = if the original digit is
10 or greater, negative exponent
= if the original digit is less than
1)
and Division of
 • The coefficients are combined in
the usual way (multiplied or
divided)
• The rules for exponential terms
are:
• 1. To multiply exponential terms,
add the exponents
• 2. To divide the exponential
terms, subtract the exponents
Ex. (2.33 x 103) x (1.55 x 104)
2.33 x 1.55 = 3.61
103 x 104 = 103+4 = 107
Final answer is 3.61 x 107
Conversion Factors
• A conversion factor is a ratio
that specifies how one unit of
measurement is related to
another unit of measurement
• It is derived from equalities that
relate units Density

Ex. 1 minute = 60 seconds • Density is the ratio of the mass

of an object to the volume
• A pair of conversion factor can be occupied by that object
derived from this equality
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
1 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒 60 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠 • 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 =   𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
60 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠
and 1 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒
• Generally expressed in grams
per cubic centimeter (g/cm3) for
solids, grams per milliliters (g/mL)
for liquids

Temperature Scales
• Heat is a form of energy.
Temperature is an indicator of the
tendency of heat energy to be
 transferred. Heat energy flows 🞤 Hazard Communication
from objects of higher Standard
temperature to objects of lower
🞤 Respiratory Standard
temperature.
🞤 Air Contaminants Standard
• Both the Celsius and the Kelvin
are part of the metric system; 🞤 Personal Protective
Equipment Standard.
Fahrenheit scale belongs to the
Bloodborne Pathogen Standard
English system
▪ applies to all exposure to
• The Celsius scale is the most blood or other potentially
commonly used in scientific work infectious materials in any
occupational setting
▪ Universal Precaution and
PPE
▪ mandates the development
of an exposure control plan
▪ decontamination and safe
Laboratory Safety handling of specimen
OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND ▪ requirement for HBV
HEALTH ACT (OSHA) vaccination
🞭 Public Law 91-596
🞭 was enacted by the U.S. Hazard Communication Standard
Congress in 1970 ▪ Toxic and Hazardous
🞭 Main goal: provide all employees Substances regulations
with a safe work environment ▪ to ensure that the hazards
of all chemicals used in the
Occupational safety and Health workplace have been
Administration evaluated and that this
hazard information is
🞭 -authorized to conduct on-site successfully transmitted to
inspections to determine whether employers and their
an employer is complying with the employees
mandatory standards
🞭 OSHA standards that regulate
safety in the laboratory include
the following:
🞤 Bloodborne Pathogen
Standard
🞤 Formaldehyde Standard
🞤 Laboratory Standard
UNIVERSAL PRECAUTION 🞭 Gloves
🞭 Instituted by CDC (1987) 🞭 Mask, eye protection, and face
🞭 all patients are considered to be shield
possible carriers of blood-borne 🞭 Gown
pathogens
🞭 Patient care equipment
🞭 recommends wearing gloves
when collecting or handling blood 🞭 Environmental control
and body fluids contaminated 🞭 Linen
with blood
🞭 Occupational health and
🞭 wearing face shields when there blood-borne pathogens
is danger of blood splashing on
🞭 Patient placement
mucous membranes
CHEMICAL SAFETY HAZARD
🞭 disposing all needles and sharp COMMUNICATION
objects in puncture-resistant 🞭 OSHA published the new Hazard
containers. Communication Standard (Right
🞭 CDC excluded urine and body to Know Law).
fluids not visibly contaminated
🞭 To comply with the regulation,
by blood from UP, although many
clinical laboratories must:
specimens can contain a
considerable amount of blood 🞤 Plan and implement a
before it becomes visible. written hazard
communication program
🞭 The modification of UP for body
substance isolation (BSI) helped 🞤 Obtain material safety data
to alleviate this concern. sheets (MSDS)
🞭 BSI guidelines are not limited to 🞤 Educate all employees
blood-borne pathogens; they 🞤 Maintain hazard warning
consider all body fluids and labels on containers
moist body substances to be received or filled on site.
potentially infectious. MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEET
BSI GUIDELINES 🞭 major source of safety
🞭 personnel should wear gloves at information for employees who
all times when encountering may use hazardous materials
moist body substances.
🞤 Product name and
🞭 A major disadvantage of BSI identification
guidelines are that they do not
recommend handwashing 🞤 Hazardous ingredients
following removal of gloves 🞤 Permissible exposure limit
unless visual contamination is (PEL)
present.
🞤 Physical and chemical data
STANDARD PRECAUTIONS
🞭 Handwashing 🞤 Health hazard data and
 carcinogenic potential medical surveillance
🞤 Primary routes of entry and consultation,
when necessary
🞤 Fire and explosion hazards Other Organizations/Law Concerned
🞭 Reactivity data with LAB SAFETY
🞭 Spill and disposal procedures 🞭 Clean Water Act
🞭 PPE recommendations 🞭 Resource Conservation
🞭 Handling and Recovery Act
🞭 Emergency and first aid 🞭 Toxic Substances Control
procedures Act
🞭 Storage and transportation 🞭 The Clinical and
precautions Laboratory Standards
Institute (CLSI) provides
🞭 Chemical manufacturer’s name, excellent general and
address, and telephone number infection control guidelines
🞭 Special information section in their documents
🞭 OSHA Laboratory Standard 🞭 The Joint Commission
🞤 to address the (TJC)
shortcomings of the Hazard 🞭 College of American
Communication Standard Pathologists (CAP)
▪ requires the appointment of 🞭 National Fire Protection
a chemical hygiene officer Association (NFPA)
and the development of a
chemical hygiene plan
▪ CHEMICAL HYGIENE
PLAN
▪ Procedures
describing how to
protect employees
against teratogens,
carcinogens, and
other toxic chemicals
must be described in
the plan.
▪ Must detail
engineering
controls, PPE, safe ECOLOGICAL SOLID WASTE
work practices, and MANAGEMENT ACT OF 2000
administrative (REPUBLIC ACT 9003) BY DENR
controls, including 🞭 Biodegradable waste – food
provisions for wastes, yard wastes, etc. (green)
🞭 Non-biodegradable/Recyclable
wastes – paper, plastic,
styrofoam, tin cans, bottles, etc.
(red)
🞭 Non-recyclable/residual wastes
– used/worn out rugs, ceramics,
soiled plastics, candy wrappers,
etc. (blue)
🞭 Special/Hazardous Wastes –
used fluorescent lamps/bulbs,
batteries, spray canisters, etc.
(black)
SAFETY AWARENESS FOR CLINICAL
LABORATORY PERSONNEL
🞭 Employer’s Responsibilities
▪ Establish laboratory work
methods and safety
policies.
▪ Provide supervision and
guidance to employees.
▪ Provide safety information,
training, personal protective
equipment, and medical
surveillance to employees.
▪ Provide and maintain
equipment and laboratory
facilities that are adequate
for the tasks required.
🞭 Employee’s Responsibilities
▪ Know and comply with the
established laboratory work
safety methods.
▪ Have a positive attitude
toward supervisors,
coworkers, facilities, and
safety training.
▪ Give prompt notification of
unsafe conditions or
practices to the immediate
supervisor and ensure that
unsafe conditions and
practices are corrected.
▪ Engage in the conduct of
safe work practices and use
of personal protective
equipment.
GENERAL LABORATORY SAFETY
PRACTICES
🞭 No smoking, eating, and
application of cosmetics
🞭 Proper use of PPE (should never
be worn outside the laboratory)
🞭 Shoes should be made of
nonporous materials with closed
toes and heels
🞭 Hand washing should be done
between each patient even if
gloves are worn
🞭 Needles and other sharps should
be discarded into
puncture-resistant and
leak-proof containers (½ to ¾
full before disposal)
SAFETY EQUIPMENT
🞭 All laboratories are required to
have
🞤 safety showers,
(recommended that safety
showers deliver 30 to 50
gallons of water per minute
at 20 to 50 psi)
🞤 eyewash stations,
🞤 fire extinguishers.
🞤 fire blankets, spill kits, and
first aid supplies.

BIOLOGIC SAFETY GENERAL
CONSIDERATIONS
Spills
🞭 Wear appropriate protective
equipment.
🞭 Use mechanical devices to pick
up broken glass or other sharp
objects.
🞭 Absorb the spill with paper
towels, gauze pads, or tissue.
🞭 Clean the spill site using a
common aqueous detergent.
🞭 Disinfect the spill site using
approved disinfectant or 10%
bleach, using appropriate contact
time.
🞭 Rinse the spill site with water.
🞭 Dispose of all materials in
appropriate biohazard containers.
LAB SAFETY GENERAL
CONSIDERATIONS
Concentrated Acid/Base Spills
🞭 Should be diluted with water
before cleanup is attempted
🞭 Cover the spill with neutalizer
🞤 Sodium bicarbonate- acids
🞤 Boric acid- bases
🞭 Absorb spill using an absorbent
🞭 Surface should be covered with
soap and water
CHEMICAL HAZARDS
Flammable/Combustible Chemicals
🞭 Flash point, which is the
temperature at which sufficient
vapor is given off to form an
ignitable mixture with air
🞭 Acetone, Benzene, Ethanol,
Heptane, Isopropanol, Methanol,
Toluene, xylene.
🞭 Certain gases, such as hydrogen,
and solids, such as paraffin
Categories of Chemicals
🞭 Corrosive - chemicals with a pH
of <2 or > 12.5
🞭 Toxic Substances - poisons,
irritants and asphyxiants
🞭 Carcinogens - capable of causing
cancers
🞭 Mutagens and Teratogens -
capable of causing chromosomal
aberrations and congenital
malformations
🞭 Ignitable - flammable
combustible
🞭 Reactive - explosives and
oxidizers
Corrosive Chemicals
🞭 injurious to the skin or eyes by
direct contact
🞭 Injurious to the tissue of the
respiratory and gastrointestinal
tracts if inhaled or ingested.
🞭 Acids (acetic, sulfuric, nitric, and
hydrochloric)
🞭 Bases (ammonium hydroxide,
potassium hydroxide, and sodium
hydroxide)
Reactive Chemicals
🞭 With molecular structures of high
reactivity
🞭 Oxidizers with high oxygen
content or compounds with redox
groups
🞭 substances that, under certain
conditions, can spontaneously
explode or ignite or that evolve
heat or flammable or explosive
gases
🞭 Some strong acids or bases react
with water to generate heat
(exothermic reactions)
🞭 mixture of oxidizing agents, such
as peroxides, and reducing
agents, such as hydrogen,
generate heat and may be
explosive.
OSHA Regulated Carcinogenic
Chemicals
❑ Chloromethyl methyl ether-
vinyl chloride
❑ N-Nitrosodimethylamine
and ❑ Benz[a] pyrene
❑ 4-Aminobiphenyl
❑ Benzidine
❑ 1-Naphthylamine
❑ 2-Naphthylamine
❑ 4-Nitrobiphenyl
❑ Benzene
❑ Ethylenimine
❑ P-Dimethylaminobenzene
❑ Β-Propiolactone
❑ Bis Chloromethyl ether
RADIATION SAFETY
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION
Four Types of Ionizing Radiation
🞤 Alpha Particles (e.g.
Plutonium)
🞤 Beta Particles
🞤 Electromagnetic Radiation
(gamma rays and x-rays)
🞤 Neutron
Effects:
🞭 damage to DNA leading to
mutation, cancer or cell death
Alpha Particles
🞤 Large and can travel only a
very short range in air
🞤 May be stopped by skin or
paper
🞤 Cause tissue damage if
inhaled or ingested
Beta Particles
🞤 Smaller and they are
negatively charged electron
🞤 With limited penetrating
power
 🞤 Cause tissue damage if
inhaled or ingested
🞤 Emitted by 3H, 14C, 32P
Neutrons
🞤
Arise from spontaneous
fission of some isotopes
and produced by atomic
reactors and accelerators
Gamma rays and X-rays
🞤 Composed of
electromagnetic energy and
not composed of atomic
particles
Gamma rays
🞤 No mass or charge but with
great penetrating ability
🞤 Produce significant internal
and external hazard if in
high concentration
🞤 Produced by 125I and 131I
X-rays
🞤
Differ from gamma rays
only in the origin of radiation
🞭 Nuclear Regulatory Commission
(NRC) license is required if the
total amount of radioactive
material exceeds a certain level.
🞭 Film badge or dosimeter must be
worn when handling radioactive
chemicals
THRESHOLD LIMIT VALUES
🞭 Exposure limits to toxic chemical
in the workplace
🞭 THREE TYPES
1. Time-Weighted Average
(TLV-TWA)- represents the
maximum allowable exposure
over an 8-hour work day
2. Short-Term Exposure Limit
(TLV-STEL)- represents the
maximum amount of allowable
exposure for a short period
such as 15 minutes
3. Ceiling Value Form (TLV-C)-
represents the concentration
of an agent that must never be
exceeded
STORAGE OF CHEMICALS
🞭 Stored in an uncluttered area
(properly ventilated)
🞭 Away from heat source
🞭 Should not be stored above eye
levels
🞭 Inorganics should be stored
separately from organics
(EXCEPT NITRIC ACID)
🞭 Flammables should be stored in
an approved flammable safety
cabinet
🞭 Water reactive chemicals should
be stored in a dry environment
(no automatic sprinkler system)c
FIRE SAFETY
THE CHEMISTRY OF FIRE
🞭 all the elements essential for fire
to begin are present—fuel, heat
or ignition source, and oxygen
(air)
CLASSIFICATION OF FIRES
🞭 Class A: ordinary combustible
solid materials, such as paper,
wood, plastic, and fabric
🞭 Class B: flammable liquids/gases
and combustible petroleum
products
🞭 Class C: energized electrical
equipment
ELECTRICAL HAZARDS
🞭 Class D: combustible/reactive 🞭 Use only explosion-proof
metals, such as magnesium, equipment in hazardous
sodium, and potassium atmospheres.
🞭 Be particularly careful when
operating high-voltage
equipment, such as
electrophoresis apparatus.
🞭 Use only properly grounded
equipment (three-pronged plug).
🞭 Check for frayed electrical cords.
🞭 Promptly report any malfunctions
or equipment.
🞭 Do not work on “live” electrical
equipment
🞭 Equipment should be checked
annually for current leakage and
ground integrity

LAB SAFETY RULES

1. Always follow the teacher’s
directions and only do lab work
when a teacher is present.
2. Conduct yourself in a responsible
manner at all times.
3. Do not touch any equipment,
chemicals, or other materials until
 told to do so.
4. Do not eat food, drink beverages, or
chew gum in the lab. Do not use
lab glassware as food or beverage
containers
5. Report ALL accidents to your teacher
immediately, even if you think it is
minor.
Glassware and Apparatuses
Types of Glass
• High Thermal
Resistant/Borosilicate Glass –
used for heating and sterilization,
commonly used for constriction of
reagent bottles
• Boron-free/Soft Glass – high
resistance to alkali
• Corex – special alumina-silicate
glass that has been strengthened
chemically than thermally
• Flint glass – poor resistance to
high temperature; used to make
disposable glassware
• Low-actinic glass – used for light
sensitive reagents
Glassware for Measurement
• Volumetric flasks - Are
frequently used for preparation
of standard solutions
• Beaker - Wide straight sided
cylindrical vessels that are
available in many sizes; used
generally for mixing and for
reagent preparation
• Erlenmeyer Flask - Are often
used for preparing reagents
and titration purposes
• Test tubes - Test tubes comes
in different sizes depending on
their intended use; chemical
reaction medium
• Graduated cylinder - A long
and straight sided cylindrical
piece of glassware with
calibration.
• Biuret - Long cylindrical
graduated pipettes with
stopcock; used for titration
• Pipettes
• Another type of volumetric
glassware used extensively in
the laboratory.
• Classification
• I. Calibration Marks/Design
• To deliver (TD)
• To contain (TC)
• II. Drainage Characteristics
• Blowout
• Self-draining
• III. Types
• Transfer pipettes
• Graduated or Measuring
pipettes
• Transfer Pipette
• Volumetric pipette
• Pasteur pipette
 • Automatic pipette
• Graduated Pipette
• Serologic Pipette
• Mohr pipette
• Centrifuge
An instrument that uses centrifugal
force to separate solid matter from a
liquid suspension
Common Laboratory Procedures
1. When pouring contents from a
reagent bottle into am
open-mouth container such as a
beaker, use a stirring rod.
2. Remove the glass stopper from
reagent bottles by pulling it with
the use of index and middle
fingers, palm facing upward
Using the Laboratory Pipette
1. If a small portion of the liquid is to
be transferred to another
container, use a pipette or a
medicine dropper
2. Let the pipette be filled by means
of capillary action.
3. To hold the liquid in, place the
index finger at the open end of
the pipette
4. If exact amounts of solutions are
needed, use an aspirator.
Heating solutions in a Test tube
• Never point the open end of the
tube to anyone while heating the
solution in it
• Never look directly inside the
tube that is being heated
• Never smell the solution directly
from the test tube, wave your
hand towards you to identify the
smell
Handling Solids
• To get solids from a reagent
bottle, spoon it with a clean and
dry spatula (a dirty spatula will
contaminate the portion being
taken and all the reagents inside
the bottle)
• When weighing solid chemicals,
put the reagent on a watch glass
• Do not place the reagent directly
on the pans of the balance
• Do not return excess reagents
into its original container
Separating Mixtures
1. Filtration – it is the process of
separating solid particles from liquid by
pouring the mixture in a filter paper
Residue – solid left on the filter paper
Filtrate – the liquid portion at the bottom
of the container
Decantation
• It is the process of pouring the
liquid portion of the mixture to
another container while not
disturbing the solid particles that
settle at the bottom of the
container
 • Residue/sediment – solid at the
bottom of the container
• Decantate – the liquid portion on
top of the solution
Atoms and the Periodic Table
Atoms
• All matter is made up of small
particles called atoms
• Atoms, in turn, are made up of
even smaller particles called
subatomic particles
• Three types of subatomic Atomic Number and Mass Number
particles are found within atoms
• The atomic number is the number
Subatomic Particles of protons in the nucleus of an
atom (Z)
• All protons and all neutrons are
found at the center of an atom Z = number of protons = number of
electrons
• Almost all of the mass of an atom
is concentrated in its center • The mass number is the number
of protons and the number of
• The outer region of an atom
neutrons in the nucleus (A)
contains all of the electrons
A = number of protons + number of
• The nucleon is any subatomic
neutrons
particle found in the nucleus of an
atom • Complete chemical symbol
notation: atomic number is placed
• An atom as a whole is electrically
as a subscript in front of the
neutral
chemical symbol and the mass
number is placed as a superscript
in front of the chemical symbol
Electrons and Chemical
Properties
• The chemical properties of an
atom are determined by the
number and arrangement of
electrons about the nucleus
 • An element is a pure substance Groups and Periods
in which all atoms present have
• A period is a horizontal row of
the same atomic number
elements in the periodic table
Isotopes
• A group is a vertical column of
• An atom must have the same elements in the periodic table
number of electrons and protons
• Four Groups of elements have
• However, the number of neutrons common (non-numerical) names
do not have to be the same as
• Alkali metal, Alkaline earth metal,
the number of protons or
Halogen and Noble Gas
electrons
Metals and Nonmetals
• Isotopes are atoms of an element
that have the same number of • A metal is an element that has
protons and the same number of the characteristic properties of
electrons but different numbers of luster, thermal conductivity,
neutrons electrical conductivity, and
malleability
Atomic Mass
• A nonmetal is an element
• The atomic mass is the
characterized by the absence of
calculated average mass for the
properties of luster, thermal
isotopes of an element,
conductivity, electrical
expressed on a scale where 126C
conductivity, and malleability
serves as the reference point
• The majority of the elements are
Periodic Law and Periodic Table
metals
• The periodic law states that when
Electron Arrangements within Atoms
elements are arranged in order of
increasing atomic number, • Electrons are restricted to
elements with similar chemical specific regions within the
properties occur in periodic extranuclear portion of the atom
(regularly recurring) intervals
• Electron energies are limited to
• A periodic table is a tabular certain values, and a specific
arrangement of the elements in behavior is associated with each
order of increasing atomic allowed energy value
number such that elements
• The space in which electrons
having similar chemical
move rapidly about is divided into
properties are positioned in
subspaces called shells,
vertical columns
subshells and orbitals
Electron Shells
• An electron shell is a region of
space about a nucleus that
contains electrons that gave
approximate the same energy
and that spend most of their time
approximately the same distance
from the nucleus
• Electron shells are numbered 1,
2, 3, and so on, outward from the
nucleus
• The higher shell number (n), the
more electrons can be present
• The lowest-energy shell (n = 1)
accommodates a maximum of 2
electrons. In the second, third
and fourth shells, 8, 18, 32
electrons, respectively, are
allowed
•
Electron Subshells
• An electron subshell is a region
of space within an electron shell
that contains electrons that have
the same energy
• The number of subshells
within a shell is the same as
the shell number
• Subshells differ in size, and each
type is designated using the
letters s, p, d and f. Listed in this
order, these letters denote
subshells of increasing energy
and size
• An s subshell can accommodate
a maximum of 2 electrons, p
subshell 6 electrons, a d subshell
10 electrons, and an f subshell 14
electrons
• Both a number and a letter are
used in identifying subshells
• The number gives the shell within
which the subshell is located, and
the letter gives the type of
subshell
• Ex. Shell number 1 has only one
subshell, the 1s
• Shell 2 has two subshells, the 2s
and 2p
• Shell 3 has three subshells, the
3s, 3p, and 3d
Electron Orbitals
• An electron orbital is a region of
space within an electron subshell
where an electron with a specific
energy is most likely to be found
• An electron orbital, independent
of all other considerations, can
accommodate maximum of 2
electrons
• Thus an s subshell (2 electrons) number-letter combinations (1s,
contains one orbital, a p subshell 2s, and 2p etc.)
(6 electrons) contains three
• A superscript following each
orbitals, a d subshell (10
subshell designation indicated
electrons) five orbitals, and an f
the number of electrons in that
subshell (14 electrons) contains
subshell
seven orbitals
• The electron configuration for
• Orbitals have distinct shaped
nitrogen (atomic number = 7) is:
related to the type of subshell
1s22s22p3
which they are found
• An s orbital, found in the s
subshell, is spherical in shape
• p orbitals, found in the p subshell,
have shaped similar to the “figure
8”

Electron Configuration
• Electron subshells are filled in
order of increasing energy
• However, energies of subshells in
different shelf often “overlap”
• For example, the 4s subshell has • Write the electron configuration
lower energy than the 3d subshell of the following elements

• An electron configuration is a • Strontium (atomic number = 38)

statement of how many electrons • 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p65s2
an atom has in each of its
electron subshells • Lead (atomic number = 82)

• Electron configurations are • 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p65s24d10

written using symbols 5p66s24f145d106p2

• Subshells containing electrons, Electron Configurations and the

listed in the order of increasing Periodic Law
energy, are designated by using
 • Groups (columns) of elements
have similar chemical properties
because of similarities in their
electron configuration
• Ex. The group IA of the periodic
table
Chemical Bonds and Compounds
Part 1: Ionic Bond Model
Chemical Bonds
• Compounds are divided into two
broad categories: ionic
compounds and molecular
compounds
• Certain combinations of elements
produces ionic compounds, some
other combinations form
molecular compounds
• Chemical bond is the attractive
force that holds two atoms
together in a more complex unit
• Ionic bonds – formed
through transfer of one or
more electrons from one
atom or group of atoms to
another
• Covalent bonds – formed
through the sharing of one
or more pairs of electrons
between two atoms
• It is important to note that most
bonds are not 100% ionic or 10%
covalent
• Ionic compounds – high melting
points, good conductors of
electricity when in liquid state or
in solution
• Molecular compounds – lower
melting points, tend to be gases,
liquids, or solids. Do not conduct
electricity in liquid state
• Ionic compounds do not have
molecules as their basic
structural unit, instead they are
made up of extended array of
positively and negatively charged
particles called ions
• Chemical bonds result from
interactions between electrons
found in the combining atoms,
thus the nature of chemical
bonding is closely related to
electron configs
• Ionic compounds are compounds
in which ionic bonds are present
• Molecular compounds are
compounds in which covalent
bonds are present
• Most bonds have some degree of
both ionic and covalent character
Valence Electrons
There are two fundamental concepts to
understanding ionic and covalent
bonding models
1. Not all electrons in an atom
participate in bonding. Those that do are
called valence electrons
2. Certain arrangements of electrons are
Three things to note:
more stable than others, as is explained
by the octet rule
• Valence electron is an electron
in the outer-most electron shell of
a representative or noble-gas
element
• The number of valence electrons
in an atom of a representative
element can be determined from
the atom’s electron configuration
Lewis Symbols
• A Lewis symbol is the chemical
symbol of an element surrounded
by dots equal in number to the
number of valence electrons
present in atoms of the element
• The general practice in writing
these symbols is to place the first
four dots separately on the four
sides of the chemical symbol and
then begin pairing the dots are
further dots are added
• 1. Representative elements in the
same group of the periodic table
have the same number valence
electrons
• 2. The number of valence
electrons for the representative
elements is the same as the
Roman numeral periodic-table
group number
• 3. The maximum number of
valence electrons for any element
is eight
Octet Rule
• The valence electrons of the
noble gases are considered the
most stable of all valence
electron configurations
• Helium’s electron configuration is
1s2. All other noble gases
possesses and ns2np6 valence
electron configurations, where n
has the maximum value found in
and atom
• The conclusion that an ns2np6
electron configuration (1s2 for
helium) is based on the chemical
inertness of the noble gases
 • Octet rule – in forming
compounds, atoms of elements
lose, gain, or share electrons in
such a way as to produce a noble
gas electron configuration for
each of the atoms involved
Ionic Bond Model
• Ions are produced as a result of
ionic bonding
• An ion is an atom (or group of
atoms) that is electrically charged
as a result of the loss or gain of
electrons
• If an atom gains one or more
electrons, it becomes a
negatively charged ; if an atom
loses one or more electrons, it
becomes a positively charged
• Loss of one, two, or three
electrons gives ions with +1, +2,
or +3 charges, respectively
• Gain of one, two, or three
electrons gives ions with -1, -2, or
-3 charges, respectively

Generalizations
1. Metal atoms containing one, two, or
three valence electrons (metals in
Groups IA, IIA, and IIIA) tend to lose
electrons to acquire a noble gas
electron configuration.
• Group IA metals form 1+
ions
• Group IIA metals form 2+
THE SIGN AND MAGNITUDE OF ions
IONIC CHARGE
 • Group IIIA metals form 3+ valence electrons) is represented as
ions follows with a Lewis structure
2.Non-metal atoms containing five, six,
or seven electrons (non-metals of
Groups VA, VIA, and VIIA) tend to gain
electrons to acquire a noble gas • When sodium, which has one
electron configuration valence electron, combines with
• Group VIIA nonmetals oxygen, which has six valence
form 1- atoms electrons, the oxygen atom
requires the presence of two
• Group VIA nonmetals form sodium atoms to acquire two
2- ions additional electrons
• Group VA nonmetals form
3- ions
3. Elements in Group IVA would
have to gain or lose four
electrons to attain stability, but in
• An opposite situation to that in
most cases the bonding that
Na2O occurs in the reaction
results is more adequately
between calcium, which has two
described by the covalent bond
valence electrons, and chlorine,
model
which has seven valence
Lewis Structures for Ionic electrons.
Compounds
• Here, two chlorine atoms are
Ion formation requires the presence of necessary to accommodate
two elements: a metal that can donate electrons transferred from one
electrons and a nonmetal that can calcium atom because a chlorine
accept electrons atom can accept only one
electron. (It has seven valence
The positive and negative ions
electrons and needs only one
simultaneously formed from such
more.)
electron transfer attract one another,
forming and ionic compound
A Lewis structure is a combination of
Lewis symbols that represents either the
transfer or sharing of electrons in
chemical bonds
Chemical Formulas for Ionic
The reaction between sodium (1 Compounds
valence electron) and chlorine (7
 • Ionic compounds are always
NEUTRAL
• The ratio in which positive and
negative ions combine is the
ratio that achieves charge
neutrality for the resulting
compound
The total positive charge present on the
ions that have lost electrons always is
exactly counterbalanced by the total
negative charge on the ions that have
gained electrons
Ions combine in a ratio that causes the
positive and negative charges to add to
zero
Recognizing and Naming Binary Ionic
Compounds
• The compounds NaCl, CO2,
P4O10 are all binary compounds
• A binary ionic compound is an
ionic compound in which one
element present is a metal and
the other element present is a
nonmetal
• NAMING RULE: the full name of
the metallic element is given first,
followed by a separate word
containing the stem of the
nonmetallic element and the
suffix –ide.
• Ex. NaF - sodium fluoride
• The compounds NaCl, CO2,
P4O10 are all binary compounds
A binary ionic compound is an
ionic compound in which one
element present is a metal and the
other element present is a nonmetal
NAMING RULE: the full name of the
metallic element is given first, followed
by a separate word containing the stem
of the nonmetallic element and the suffix
–ide.
• Ex. NaF - sodium fluoride
Naming Binary Compounds
• The chlorides of Fe2+ and Fe3+
(FeCl2 and FeCl3, respectively)
are named iron(II) chloride and
iron(III) chloride
• CuO is named copper(II) oxide
• If you are uncertain about the
charge on the metal ion in an
ionic compound, use the charge
on the nonmetal ion (which does
not vary) to calculate it
• For example in CuO, you can
note that the oxide ion carries a
-2 charge (because oxygen is in
group VIA), this means that the
copper ion must have a +2
charge to counterbalance the -2
charge
Naming Binary Compounds
• You must know which metals
exhibit variable ionic charge and
which have a fixed ionic charge.
 • The fixed charge metals are compounds, the basic structural unit is a
those in group IA (+1 ionic molecule (molecular compounds)
charge), those in group IIA (+2
4. All ionic compounds are solids at RT.
ionic charge) and five others
Molecular compounds may be solids,
(Al3+, Ga3+, Zn2+, Cd2+, and Ag +)
liquids, or gases at RT.
• Metals from the diagram form
5. An ionic solid, if soluble in water,
ionic compounds without roman
forms aqueous solution that conducts
numerals in their names
electricity. A molecular compound, if
Polyatomic ions soluble in water, usually produces a
nonconduction aqueous solution
• A monoatomic ion is an ion
formed from a single atom Covalent Bond
through loss or gain of electrons
• A covalent bond is a chemical
(Cl-, Na+, Ca2+)
bond resulting from two nuclei
• A polyatomic ion is an ion formed attracting the same shared
from a group of atoms (held electrons
together by covalent bonds)
• Consider two hydrogen atoms,
through loss or gain of electrons
each with a single electron that
(SO42-)
are brought together
• This ion contains four O atoms
• The orbitals that contain the
and one S atom, and the whole
valence electrons overlap to
group of five atoms has acquired
create an orbital common to both
a charge of -2
atoms

Chemical Bonds and Compound

Part 2: Covalent Bond
Ionic vs Covalent
1. Ionic bonds form between atoms of
dissimilar elements (metal + nonmetal).
Covalent bond occurs between similar
or even identical atoms (often two
nonmetals are involved)
2. Ionic bond = Electron transfer,
Covalent bond = Electron sharing The two electrons, one from each H
3. Ionic compounds do not have discreet atom, now move throughout this new
molecules. In covalently bonded
orbital and are said to be shared by the
two nuclei
Once two orbitals overlap, the most
favorable location for the shared
electrons is the area directly between
the two nuclei. Here the two electrons
can simultaneously interact with both
nuclei, a situation that produces
increased stability
The two shared electrons do double
duty, helping each hydrogen atom
achieve a helium noble gas
configuration
Lewis Structures for Molecular
Compounds
• The octet rule and Lewis symbols
are also useful for molecular
compounds
• Fluorine (Group VIIA) has seven
valence electrons. Lewis symbol:
• Consider the molecules HF, F2,
and BrF
• Bonding electrons are pairs of
valence electrons that are shared
between atoms in a covalent
bond. Nonbonding electrons
are pairs of valence electrons on
an atom that are not involved in
electron sharing
Lewis Structures for Molecular
Compounds
• Consider the molecules H2O,
NH3, and CH4. The hydrogen
content of these molecules is
correlated directly with the fact
that oxygen, nitrogen, and carbon
have six, five, and four valence
electrons, and therefore need to
gain two, three and four
electrons, respectively, through
electron sharing in order for the
octet rule to be obeyed.

•
• A common practice in writing
Lewis structures for covalently
bonded molecules is to represent
the shared electron pairs with
dashes
Single, Double, and Triple Covalent
Bonds
• A single covalent bond is a
covalent bond in which two atoms
share one pair of electrons
• A double covalent bond is a
covalent bond in which two atoms
share two pairs of electrons
• A triple covalent bond is a
covalent bond in which two atoms
share three pairs of electrons
• Consider the molecule N2, which
has a triple covalent bond.
• A nitrogen atom has five valence
electrons. Lewis structure:
• In order to have an octet of
electrons, each nitrogen atom
must share thee of its electrons
with the other nitrogen atom
• Consider the molecule C2H2
(acetylene). A carbon-carbon
triple covalent bond is present as
well as two carbon-hydrogen
single bonds
• The two atoms in a triple covalent
bond are commonly the same
element. However, they do not
have to be. Consider HCN
(hydrogen cyanide)
Valence Electrons and Number of
Covalent Bonds
• Not all elements can form
multiple bonds
• There must be at least two
vacancies in an atom’s valence
electron shell prior to bond
formation if it is to participate in a
double bond
• At least three vacancies are
necessary for triple bond
formation
• Multiple bonding does not have to
occur when an element has two,
three, or four vacancies; single
covalent bonds can be formed
instead
Electronegativity
• The ionic and covalent bonding
models seem to represent two
very distinct forms of bonding, but
the two models are closely
related; they are the extremes of
a broad continuum of bonding
patterns
• Electronegativity is the measure
of the relative attraction that an
 atoms has for the shared
electrons in a bond
• Linus Pauling developed a
numerical scale for
electronegativity
• The close relationship between
the two models becomes
apparent when the concepts of
electronegativity and bond
polarity are considered
• Electronegativity concept has its
origins in the fact that nuclei of
various elements have differing
abilities to attract shared
electrons to themselves. Some
elements are better electron
attractors than other elements
• The higher the electronegativity
value for an element, the greater
the attraction of atoms of that
element for the shared electrons
• Electronegativity values increase
from left to right across periods
and from bottom to top within
groups of the periodic table;
making nonmetals having higher
electronegativities than metals
Bond Polarity
• A nonpolar covalent bond is a
covalent bond in which there is
equal sharing of electrons
between two atoms
• A polar covalent bond is a
covalent bond in which there is
unequal sharing of electrons
between atoms
• Unequal sharing of electrons in a
polar covalent bond creates a
fractional positive and negative
charges on atoms
• The Greek letter delta (𝛿) is used
to denote fractional charge
• The symbol 𝛿– means fractional
negative charge, and is placed
above the more electronegative
atom of the bond
• The symbol 𝛿+ means fractional
positive charge, and it is placed
above the less electronegative
atom of the bond
• When two atoms of equal
electronegativity share one or
more pairs of electrons, each
atom exerts the same attraction
for the electrons, which results in
the electrons being equally
shared. This is called a nonpolar
covalent bond
• When two atoms involved in a
covalent bond have different
electronegativities, the atom that
has the higher electronegativity
attracts the electrons more
strongly than the other atom,
resulting in an unequal sharing of
electrons
• Unequal sharing means that
electrons spend more time near
the more electronegative atom of
the bond (producing a fractional
negative charge) and less time
near the less electronegative
 atom of the bond (producing a
fractional positive charge)
• With the delta notation, the
direction of polarity of the bond in
hydrogen chloride (HCl) is
depicted as
• The direction of polarity of a polar
covalent bond can also be
designated by using and arrow
with a cross at one end
• Bond polarity is a measure of
the degree of inequality in the
sharing of electrons between two
atoms in a chemical bond
• The numerical value of the
electronegativity difference
between two bonded atoms gives
an approximate measure of bond
polarity
Guidelines
1. Bonds that involve atoms with the
same or very similar electronegativities
are called nonpolar covalent bonds.
These are those with electronegativity
difference of 0.4 or less
2. Bonds with an electronegativity
difference greater than 0.4 but less than
1.5 are called polar covalent bonds
3. Bonds with an electronegativity
difference greater than 2.0 are called
ionic bonds
4. Bonds with electronegativity
difference between 1.5 and 2.0 are
considered ionic if the bond involves a
metal and a nonmetal, polar covalent if
the bond involves two nonmetals
The existence of bond polarity means
that there is no natural boundary
between ionic and covalent bonding,
most bonds are a mixture of pure ionic
and pure covalent bonds, that is,
unequal sharing of electrons occurs
Naming Binary Molecular
Compounds
• Rules are very similar to that
used for naming binary ionic
compounds
• However, names for binary
molecular compounds always
contain numerical prefixes that
give the number of each type of
atom present in addition to the
names of the elements present
• The full name of the nonmetal of
lower electronegativity is given
first, followed by a separate word
containing the stem of the name
of the more electronegative
nonmetal and the suffix –ide.
Numerical prefixes, giving the
numbers of atoms, precede the
names of both nonmetals
• A binary molecular compound is
a molecular compound in which
only two nonmetallic elements
are present
Chemical Reactions
Chemical Equation
• For example: N2O, N2O3, N2O4
• Names: dinitrogen monoxide,
dinitrogen trioxide, dinitrogen
tetroxide
• Compounds in which hydrogen is
the first listed element in the
formula are named without
numerical prefixes. Ex. HCl =
hydrogen chloride
• Few binary molecular compounds
have common names
• A chemical equation is a written
statement that uses chemical
symbols and chemical formulas
instead of words to describe the
changes that occur in a chemical
reaction
• In a chemical equation, there are
reactants and there are products
• Conventions: Reactants are
written on the left side of
equation, products on the right
side. Reactants and products are
separated by an arrow pointing
toward the products. Plus sign
are used to separate different
reactants or different products
 • Chemical equations must be: (1)
Consistent with experimental
facts and (2) must have the same
number of atoms of each kind on
both sides of the equation
• (2) states that chemical equations
must be balanced. This is
achieved with the use of equation
coefficients. An equation
coefficient is a number that is
placed to the left of a chemical
formula in a chemical equation.
•
Chemical Reaction
• A chemical reaction is a process
in which at least one new
substance is produced as a result
of chemical change
• A combination reaction is a
reaction in which a single product
is produced from two (or more)
reactants
The majority of reactions fall into these
five major categories: combination,
decomposition, single-replacement,
double replacement, and combustion
reaction
In a combination reaction, two
substances join together to form a more
complicated product. The reactants can
be elements or compounds or an
element and a compound. The product
of the reaction is always a compound
A decomposition rxn is the opposite of a
combination rxn. The products may be
elements or compounds, but the
reactant is always a compound
• A single-replacement reaction
is a chemical reaction in which an
atom or molecule replaces an
atom or group of atoms from a
compound

• A decomposition reaction is a
chemical reaction in which a
single reactant is converted into
two (or more) simpler substances
(elements or compounds)
• A double-replacement reaction
is a chemical reaction in which
two substance exchange parts
 with one another and form two
different substances

• A combustion reaction is a
chemical reaction between a
substance and oxygen (usually
from air) that proceeds with the
evolution of heat and light
(usually from a flame)