Types of error:

a) Gross error
b) Systematic error
i. Instrumental error
ii. Observation error
iii. Environmental error
c) Random error.

Gross Error:

Gross Error is also called parasitic error. Gross errors mainly cover the human
mistakes in reading instruments. Recording, and calculating measurement results. It
occurs generally due to the fault of the person using the instruments, For example,
errors such as incorrect reading, incorrect recording, incorrect use etc. come under
this category. These errors cannot be treated mathematically and they cannot be
eliminated but they can be minimized. They can be minimized only by taking care of
all instruments while using and reading the measurement.

In general, these errors can be avoided by adopting two means:

I. Greater care must be taken in reading and recording the data.

2. Two, three or even more reading should be taken for the quantity under the
measurement,

Systematic Error
Systematic errors are associated with a fault in the equipment (such as defective or
worn parts, effects of the environment on the instrument) or in the design of the
experiment. Systematic errors cannot be estimated by repeating the experiment with the
same equipment. It is caused by any factors that systematically affect the measurement
of the variable across the sample. The causes of these may be known or unknown. The
errors may be constant or variable. Systematic errors ate regularly repetitive in nature.

In general, systematic can be subdivided into static and dynamic errors based on the
nature of the error.

a) Static error:
It is caused by the limitations of the physical nature of various components in a
measuring device or the physical laws governing its behaviour. The environmental
effects and the other properties which influence the apparatus are also the reasons for
static errors.
b) Dynamic error;
It is caused by the instrument not responding very fast enough to follow the
changes In a measured variable. It is due to time variations in the measurand. The
dynamic errors are caused by inertia, friction and clamping action. Systematic error is
 further divided into the following three different categories based on errors of
measurement,
a. Instrumental error
b. Observational error
c. Environmental error.

(i) Instrumental error:

These errors are due to the fault of the instrument. These errors are inherent
in measuring instruments because of their mechanical structure. Friction in bearings
of various moving components, irregular spring tension, stretching of spring or
reduction in tension due to improper handling or overloading of the instrument will
result the instrumental errors. Other instrumental errors are calibration errors and
they cause the instrument to read high or low along its entire scale.

These errors can be avoided by:

(a) Selecting a suitable instrument for the particular measurement application

(b) Applying a correction factor after determining the amount of instrumental

error

(c) Calibrating the instrument against a standard.

There are many kinds of instrumental errors depending on the type of

instrument used. The following are the several of instrument errors normally occur.

i) Error of a physical measure:

It is the difference between the nominal value and the conventional true value
reproduced by the physical measure.

2, Error of a measuring mechanism or characteristic error:

It is the difference between the value indicated by the measuring mechanism
and the conventional true value of the measured quantity.
Zero error:
It is the indication of a measuring instrument for the zero value of the
quantity measured. For example. a digital weighing scale, sometimes, may not
show value even if there is nothing on the scale

(ii) Observation error:

These errors are introduced by the observer. There are many sources of
observational enors as follows:
 I. Reading error:
It is the error of observation resulting from the incorrect reading of the
indication of a measuring instrument by the observer. It occurs when the scale and
pointer are separated relative to one another.
Examples: Wrong scale reading and wrong recording the data.

2. Parallax error:
It is the reading error which is produced when, with the index at a certain
distance from the surface of scale, the reading is not made in the direction of
observation provided for the instrument used. As an example of this error, an
observer who tends to hold his head too far to the left or right while reading the
position of the needle on the scale is shown in Figure 1.8.
9

Wrong

correct

Wrong

Parallax error

The two common practices to minimise this error are:

(i) Reducing the separation between the scale and pointer to a

minimum.

(ii) Placing a mirror behind the pointer to ensure normal

reading of the scale in all cases.

3. Interpolation error:
It is the reading error resulting from the inexact evaluation of the position of
the index with regard to two adjacent graduation marks between which the index is
located. For example, an inaccurate estimate of the average reading. The use of
digital readout devices eliminates this type of error.
(ill) Environmental (Ambient /Atmospheric condition) error:
 These errors are due to external conditions to the measuring device such as the
effects of change in temperature, humidity. barometric pressure, humidity, dust,
vibrations or external magnetic or electt0fitatic fields. For example, a change in ambient
temperature at which the instrument is used to cause a change in elastic properties of
the material of Vernier caliper. So, it affects the reading of the instrument. Corrective
measure to reduce these effects should be taken accordingly.

An international agreement has been reached on ambient condition which is at 20 0C

temperature, 160 mm of Vlg pressure and 65% relative humidity. Instruments are
calibrated at these conditions. If there is any variation in the ambient condition, errors
may creep into final results. Of the three, temperature effect is most considerable.

By following the below conditions, the environmental errors are eliminated.

1. Maintaining the atmospheric conditions using the air conditioner and/or

magnetic shields.

2. By calibration of an instrument at the place of use.

3. By sealing a certain component in the instruments.

4. Automatic devices are used to compensate the effects.

Random Error
These errors are due to unknown causes and they occur even when all systematic
errors have been accounted. These are caused by any factors that randomly affect the
measurement of the variable across the sample. Random error does not have
consistent effects across the entire sample. Such errors are normally small and follow
the laws of probability. Rand0m errors are inconsistent. Random errors are normally
of limited time duration.

Random errors are caused by the sudden change in experimental conditions,

noise and tiredness of the working persons. These errors are either positive or
negative. Random errors are generally an accumulation of a .large number of small
effects and they may be of real concern only in measurements requiring a high degree
of accuracy. These errors may be reduced by taking the average of a large number of
readings.

These errors can be avoided by.

a) Increasing the number of reading
b) Using the statistical means to obtain the best approximation of a true
value.