Errors of Measurement

Definition
Terminology: The word Error (from the Latin error, meaning "wandering”) is an action which is
inaccurate or incorrect.

Error in statistics is the Disparity between the true value and the measured value.

It is of importance for us to study the nature of these errors because in reality no matter how
precise the measurement is, it is impossible to obtain the true value thus some degree of
uncertainty will always exist.

Calculating Errors
There are three categories in this calculation namely absolute error, percentage error and relative
error.

a)

b)

c)

Example: A book was measured to have a thickness of 4.8 cm, the absolute thickness of this
particular book is 5 cm, calculate the absolute error, relative error and percentage error.

Absolute Error =

Relative Error =

Percentage Error =
Types of Errors
There are 3 major types of error according to the factor that generates the error.

1. Systematic Error
Systematic errors are errors that are unidirectional thus always occur in the same direction. They
have a clear cause and can be reduced for future experiments.

Systematic error is sometimes called bias.

Systematic errors in general are predictable thus preventable. To minimize systematic errors, we
can use the following techniques

a) Triangulation: using multiple techniques to record observations so that it is not necessary to

rely on only one instrument method.

b) Regular Calibration: constantly compare instrument recordings with true value of a known,
standard quantity.

c) Randomization: Random sampling helps ensure the sample does not differ from the
population.

d) Masking: masking or blinding is trying to keep the experiment neutral from experimenter's
expectancies and the resultant influence on participants’ response or behavior.

Types of Systematic Errors

1.1 Instrumental Errors: Is when an instrument gives wrong reading. Occur due to
shortcomings of an instrument, improper use of instruments or loading effect of instruments.

They can result from improper calibration (offset zero, scale factor errors), improper use by an
operator or effect of loading.
.Example: A blood pressure apparatus that always adds 10 mmHg.

1.2 Environmental Errors: Is a result of external ambient conditions of the instrument. These
include changes in temperature, humidity, dust, vibrations...

Example: repeated gusts of wind from an open window when measuring humidity of a room.

Environmental Errors can be minimized by keeping ambient physical conditions constant, using
instruments resistant to environmental changes, using techniques which eliminate the effect of
such disturbances and applying computed corrections.

1.3 Observational Errors: Occur when the experimenter makes a wrong observation.

Example: The observer misreads number 14 as 13.

1.4 Theoretical Errors: arise because of incorrect experimental assumptions.

Example: Storage Temperature is not assumed to have an effect on vaccine efficacy but it does.

2. Random Errors
Random errors are errors that occur in any direction and are inconsistent. Thus are hard to
identify making them harder to eliminate for future experiments. These errors primarily affect
precision.

Typically the last significant digit of a measurement is affected.

There are different ways to reduce random errors

a) Taking repeated measurements and computing their average

b) Increasing sample Size

c) Controlling Extraneous Variables that could influence the experiment

Types of Random Errors

There are 2 types of random errors

2.1 Observational Errors: when the observer makes consistent observational mistakes.

Example: The experimenter repeatedly reads volume in a flask from a different angle each time.

2.2 Environmental Errors: when unpredictable changes occur in the environment of the
experiment.

Example: Measuring weight is affected by minor posture changes.

3. Human Errors (blunders)
Blunders are basic mistakes .They are usually considered a result of carelessness and are the
most avoidable.

Example: A student spills the bag of seeds to be measured before weighing the bag.

Accuracy, Precision, Reliability and Validity

Accuracy: A measure of how close the measured value is to the true value. Eliminating
systematic error improves accuracy.

Precision: A measure of how close individual measurements are to each other. It refers to the
extent of reproducibility of the experiment given it is repeated under similar circumstances.
Reducing random errors increases precision.

Reliability: Is about consistency or precision of a measure. A reliable measure is not always a

valid one.

Validity: Is about accuracy of a measure. A valid measure is generally reliable.