Instrumentation Manual

TRIBHUVAN UNIVERSITY
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING
COURSE MANUAL
ON
INSTRUMENTATION AND MEASUREMENT
(ME 553)
PREPARED BY
KHEM GYANWALI
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
THAPATHALI CAMPUS, THAPATHALI
JULY, 2013
INSTRUMENTATION & MEASUREMENT 1 Khem Gyanwali

CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1: FUNDAMENTALS OF MESUREMENT ................................................................ 3
CHAPTER 2 : TIME DEPENDENT PROPERTIES OF ANALOG SIGNALS .............................. 8
CHAPTER 3 : STATIC CHARACTERISTICS OF MEASUREMENT SYSTEM ....................... 13
CHAPTER 4: DYNAMIC RESPOSE OF MEASUREMET SYSTEM ......................................... 21
CHAPTER 5 : SENSORS ............................................................................................................... 51
CHAPTER 6 : STRAIN GAGES .................................................................................................... 63
CHAPTER 7 : COMMON MECHANICAL MEASUREMENT SYSTEM AND TRANSDUCERS

.......................................................................................................................................................... 72
TUTORIAL NO: 1 .................................................................................................................... 105
TUTORIAL NO: 2 .................................................................................................................... 108
SAMPLE PROBLEMS FOR TUTORIAL NO: 2 ................................................................. 110
TUTORIAL NO: 3 .................................................................................................................... 111
SAMPLE PROBLEMS FOR TUTORIAL NO: 3 ................................................................. 112
TUTORIAL NO: 4 .................................................................................................................... 113

CHAPTER 1
FUNDAMENTALS OF MESUREMENT
1.1 Fundamental Methods of Measurement
Measurement of a quantity is the act or the result of a quantitative comparison between a
predefined standard and an unknown magnitude.
Standard
(Known quantity)
Measurand Result
(Unknown quantity) Process of Comparision (Numeric value)
(Measurement)
Figure 1.1: Fundamental Measuring Process
If the result is to be meaningful, the act of measurement must satisfy the following requirements:
 the standard which is used for comparison must be accurately defined and internationally
accepted,
 the standard must be of the same character as the measurand, and
 the apparatus and the experimental procedure employed for obtaining the value must be
provable.
There are two basic methods of measurement: (i) direct comparison with the primary or secondary
standards and (ii) indirect comparison with standards through the use of a calibrated system.
Direct Methods
In these methods, the unknown quantity (also called the measurand) is directly compared against a
standard. The result is expressed as a numerical number and a unit.
Direct methods are quite common for the measurement of physical quantities like length, mass and
time.
These methods in most cases are inaccurate because they involve human factors. They are also less
sensitive. Hence the direct methods are not preferred and are rarely used.
Indirect Methods
Indirect comparison makes use of some form of transducing device coupled to a chain of
connecting apparatus, called generalized measurement system.

These chains of devices convert the basic form of input into an analogous form, which it then
processes, and presents at the output as a known function of the input.
Such a conversion is often necessary in order to make the desired information intelligible.
1.2 The Generalized Measurement System

The act of measurement is accomplished with a measuring instrument, an assemblage of physical
facilities known as measurement system.
Most measuring systems fall within the framework of a general arrangement consisting of three
phases or stages:
Stage I A detector-transducing or sensor stage;
Stage II An intermediate stage or signal-conditioning stage;
Stage III A terminating or read-out stage.
Figure 1.2: Generalized Measurement System
1.2.1 Sensor-Transducer Stage

The prime function of the first stage is to detect or to sense the measurand.
At the same time, ideally, it should be insensitive to every other possible input.
Unfortunately, it is rare indeed to find a detecting device that is completely selective.
1.2.2 Signal-Conditioning Stage

The purpose of the second stage of the general system is to modify the transuded information so
that it is acceptable to the third, or terminating, stage. It may perform one or more basic operations,
such as selective filtering, integration, differentiating, or telemetering, as may be required.

1.2.3 Read-Out Stage
The third stage provides the information sought in a form of comprehensible to one of the human
senses or to a controller. If the output is intended for immediate human recognition, it is, with rare
exception, presented in one of the following forms:
 As a relative displacement, such as movement of an indicating needle, displacement of
oscilloscope trace or oscillograph light beam, etc., or,
 In digital form, as presented by a counter such as an automobile odometer or one of the
modern digital voltmeter.
1.3 Calibration Concepts

Every measurement system must be provable, that is, it must prove its ability to measure reliably.
The procedure for this is called calibration.
It consists of determining the system's scale. At some point during the preparation of the system for
measurement, known magnitudes of the basic input quantity must be fed into the detector-
transducer, and the system's behavior must be observed.
If the system has been proved linear, perhaps single-point calibration will suffice, wherein the
effect of only a single value of the input is used. If the system is not linear, or if it has not been so
proved, a number of values must be used and their results observed.
1.4 Measurement Errors

1.4.1 Errors in measurement system
An error is defined as "The difference between the measured value and the actual value."
If two persons use the same instrument for measurement for finding the same measurement, it is
not essential that they may get the same results. There may arise a difference between their
measurements. This difference is referred to as an "ERROR".
Input
(True value of quantity) Output
Measurement System (Measured Value of quantity)
Error = True value – Measured value

% Error = (True value – Measured value) * 100% / True value
1.4.2 Types of Error
1.4.2.1 Gross Errors

All errors committed by the users such as calculation error, observation error, reading error,
connection error, placement error etc.

1.4.2.2 Systematic Errors
A systematic error can be trickier to track down and is often unknown. This error is often called a
bias in the measurement. In chemistry a teacher tells the student to read the volume of liquid in a
graduated cylinder by looking at the meniscus. A student may make an error by reading the volume
by looking at the liquid level near the edge of the glass. Thus this student will always be off by a
certain amount for every reading he makes. This is a systematic error. Instruments often have both
systematic and random errors.
Figure 1.3: Distribution with systematic error
I) Instrumental Errors:
Instrumental errors are all those errors due to shortcomings of instrument such as, the error due to
defective parts. e.g. error due to less accuracy in the scale calibration, error due to the improper
tension in the spring. The corrective measures are
 Use proper instrument for proper application
 If less accuracy in scale calibration, then recalibrate the scale by comparing with standard
measurements.
 Use correction factor
II) Environmental Errors:

All the errors due to effect of surrounding such as error due to change in temperature, pressure,
humidity and also the error to the external electrostatic and magnetic field. The corrective measures
are
 To minimize the effect of change in temperature, perform the measurement in standard
condition.
 To avoid the effect of moisture, use proper casing
 To avoid the effect of fields, use proper shielding.

III) Observational Errors:
There are many sources of observational errors. As an example, the pointer of a voltmeter rests
slightly above the surface of the scale. The corrective measure for this type of error is providing
highly accurate meters are provided with mirrored scales reducing parallax errors.
1.4.2.3 Random Errors
Random errors are ones that are easier to deal with because they cause the measurements to
fluctuate around the true value. If we are trying to measure some parameter X, greater random
errors cause a greater dispersion of values, but the mean of X still represents the true value for that
instrument.
Figure 1.4: Distribution with random error

CHAPTER 2
TIME DEPENDENT PROPERTIES OF ANALOG SIGNALS
2.1 Types of Measurement Signals
A parameter common to all of measurement is time. The time dependent measurement signals are
classified as:
I. Static
II. Dynamic
A. Steady-state periodic
B. Non-repetitive or transient
1. Single pulse or aperiodic
2. Continuing or random
2.2 Harmonic Signals

A function is said to be simple harmonic in terms of a variable when its second derivative is
proportional to the function but have opposite sign.
Any signal that follows the definition of harmonic function is called harmonic signal.
In its most elementary form, simple harmonic motion is defined by the relation
s = s0 sin t ………. (2.1)
ds
v = = s0 cos t ………. (2.2)
dt
v0 = s0  ………. (2.3)
Also,
dv
a = = – s0 sin2 t = – s2 ………. (2.4)
dt
In addition,
a0 = – s02 ………. (2.5)
Equation (2.4) satisfies the definition of simple harmonic motion. The acceleration a is
proportional to the displacement s, but is of opposite sign. The proportionality factor is 2.
The mechanical analogy for harmonic motion is Scotch-yoke mechanics. Figure 2.1 shows the
elements of the Scotch-yoke.

Figure 2.1: The Scotch-Yoke Mechanism
2.3 Periodic Signals, Fourier Series Representation

A periodic signal is one that repeats itself cyclically over and over. If this function meets the
Dirichlet conditions, i.e., if it must have a single value, be finite, and have a finite number of
discontinuities and maxima and minima in one cycle, it may be represented by a Fourier series.
That is

f(x) =
A0 + (A
n 1
n cos nx  Bn sin nx) ………. (2.7)
2
where An and Bn are called Fourier coefficients.
The constants terms are given as
1 
A0 =  f ( x) dx
 

1
An =
 
 f ( x) cos nx dx ………. (2.8)

1
Bn =
 
 f ( x) sin nx dx
where n = 1, 2, 3, ……

Most complex dynamic-mechanical signals, steady state or transient, whether they are time
functions of pressure, displacement, strain, or something else, may be expressed as a combination
of simple harmonic components. Each component will have its own amplitude and frequency and
will be combined in various phase relations with the other components. A general mathematical
statement of this may be rewritten by replacing x by t as:

f(t) = A0 + (A
n 1
n cos nt  Bn sin nt ) ………. (2.9)
where A, An and Bn = amplitude-determining constants called harmonic coefficients, and

n = integers from 0 to , called harmonic orders.
When n is unity, the corresponding sine and cosine terms are said to be fundamental. For n = 2, 3,
4, etc., the corresponding terms are referred to as second, third, fourth harmonics, and so on.
Equation (2.9) may be written in the two equivalent forms:


f(t) = A0 + C n cos nt   n  ………. (2.10a)

n 1
or,

f(t) = A0 + C n sin nt   n ' ………. (2.10b)

n 1
where the harmonic coefficients Cn are determine by the relation
An  Bn
2 2
Cn = ………. (2.11)
and the phase relations n and n' are determined as follows:
B  A 
tan  n   n  And tan  n '   n  ………. (2.12)
 An   Bn 
The phase angles n and n' provide necessary time wise relationships among the various harmonic
components.
The Fourier series is an infinite series, and in order to get a perfect reconstruction of f(t) we would
have to add an infinite number of terms.
Since most engineering applications do not require a perfect reconstruction of f(t), generally, f(t) is
approximated by a truncated Fourier series. Very often less than ten harmonics are adequate for
most engineering applications.
After the Fourier series of a particular f(t) is found, the steady state response of any measuring
instrument can be determined by frequency response technique or principle of superposition i.e.
response to each harmonic component or sinusoidal component is found and then algebraically
added to get the total response.

2.4 Determining Fourier Coefficients
The method of obtaining the desired terms in the Fourier series depends on the nature of f(t). If f(t)
is given as a known mathematical formula, Equations (2.9) to (2.12) may be employed. If the
required integration cannot be performed analytically because of the complexity of f(t) or because
is given by a graph or table rather that a formula, then various approximate numerical methods are
available.
2.4.1 Analytical Method

The analytical method may be outlined as follows:
1. Establish the fundamental cycle and assign the values 0 to 2 to its limits. The general form
of the desired equation is then,
A
f(t) = + (A1cos + A2cos + A3cos + ….) +
2
(B1sin + B2sin + B3sin + ….)
2. Divide the fundamental cycle into m equal intervals, each of width, and determine the
corresponding ordinates. Do not include the ordinates for both ends of the interval being
analyzed, because this would be duplication. Select the number of intervals such that m  n,
where m is the number of intervals required per cycle and n is the order of coefficient
desired.
3. To determine a given coefficient, multiply each of the m ordinates determined in (2) by the
corresponding numerical values of the desired trigonometric function. The average value of
the resulting column of the products will be one half the coefficients being sought. For
example: To determine A2, multiply each of the values of f () as determined in step (2) by
the corresponding values of cos2. Add all the products together and divide by m/2. This
will give the numerical value of A2. Repeat this process for each of the values of A and B
that are required.
4. Determine A, which is twice the average of the values of f().
2.4.2 FFT Method

For relatively simple wave shapes, the number required numerical manipulations may easily make
the procedure prohibited from a time-benefit standpoint. This limitation becomes especially
important when the variety of non-repetitive conditions needing analysis taxes the capacity of even
the larger computers.
This has led to a truncated procedure referred to as the fast Fourier Transform, or FFT.
If N represents the number harmonic coefficients to be determined, ordinary harmonic analysis

requires roughly N2 separate computations, whereas FFT requires approximately (N) log2N

Figure 2.2 is a schematic of a fast Fourier transform analyzing system.
Figure 2.2: Block Diagram a FFT Analyzing System

CHAPTER 3
STATIC CHARACTERISTICS OF MEASUREMENT SYSTEM
3.1 Introduction
The system characteristics are to be known, to choose an instrument that most suited to a particular
measurement application. The performance characteristics may be broadly divided into two groups,
namely “static” and “dynamic” characteristics.
 Static characteristics: The performance criteria for the measurement of quantities that
remain constant, or vary only quite slowly. Normally, static characteristics of a
measurement system are, in general, those that must be considered when the system or
instrument is used to measure a condition not varying with time.
 Dynamic characteristics: The relationship between the system input and output when the
measured quantity (measurand) is varying rapidly. This is normally done with help of
differential equations.
Instruments systems are usually built up from a serial linkage of distinguishable building blocks.
The actual physical assembly may not appear to be so but it can be broken down into a
representative diagram of connected blocks. The sensor is activated by an input physical parameter
and provides an output signal to the next block that processes the signal into a more appropriate
state. A fundamental characterization of a block is to develop a relationship between the input and
output of the block. All the signals have a time characteristic. It is essential to consider the behavior
of a block in terms of both the static and dynamic states. The behavior of the static regime alone
and the combined static and dynamic regime can be found through use of an appropriate
mathematical model of each block.
The output/input ratio of a block that includes both the static and dynamic characteristics is called
the transfer function and is given the symbol G.
Gtotal = G1 * G2 *G3
Gtotal = ∑Gi
The equation for Gi can be written as two parts multiplied together.

Gi = [Static * Dynamic]
One expresses the static behavior of the block, that is, the value it has after all transient (time
varying) effects have settled to their final state. The other part tells us how that value responds
when the block is in its dynamic state. The static part is known as the transfer characteristics and is
often all that is needed to be known for block description. The static and dynamic response of the
cascade of blocks is simply the multiplication of all individual blocks.
3.2 Static characteristics of measurement system

3.2.1 Accuracy and Precision
Accuracy
It is the closeness with which an instrument reading approaches the value of the quantity being
measured. Accuracy is the ability of an instrument to show the exact reading and is always related
to the extent of the wrong reading/non accuracy.

The accuracy may be specified in terms of inaccuracy or limits of errors and can be expressed in
the following ways:
(i) Accuracy as "Percentage of Full Scale"

Accuracy (%) = Vresult  Vactual ………. (3.1)
 100%
V full scale
(ii) Accuracy as "Percentage of Actual Value"
Accuracy (%) = Vresult  Vactual ………. (3.2)
 100%
Vactual
Example 1:
A pressure gauge with a range between 0-1 bars with an accuracy of ± 5% fs (full-scale) has a
maximum error of:
5/100 * 1 bar = ± 0.05 bar
Notes: It is essential to choose equipment which has a suitable operating range.
Example 2:
A pressure gauge with a range between 0 - 10 bars is found to have an error of ± 0.15 bar when
calibrated by the manufacturer.
Calculate:
a. The error percentage of the gauge.
b. The error percentage when the reading obtained is 2.0 bars.
Answer:
a. Error Percentage = ± 0.15 bar/10.0 bar * 100 = ± 1.5%
b. Error Percentage = ± 0.15 bar/2.0 bar * 100 = ± 7.5 %

The gauge is not suitable for use for low range reading.
Alternative: use gauge with a suitable range.
Example 3:
Two pressure gauges (pressure gauge A and B) have a full scale accuracy of ± 5%. Sensor
A has a range of 0-1 bar and Sensor B 0-10 bar. Which gauge is more suitable to be used if the
reading is 0.9 bars?
Answer:
Sensor A:
Equipment max error = ± 5/100 * 1 bar = ± 0.05 bar
Equipment accuracy @ 0.9 bar (in %) = ± 0.05 bar/0.9 bar * 100 = ± 5.6%
Sensor B:
Equipment max error = ± 5/100 * 10 bar = ± 0.5 bar
Equipment accuracy @ 0.9 bar (in %) = ± 0.5 bar/0.9 bar * 100 = ± 55%
Conclusion:
Sensor A is more suitable to use at a reading of 0.9 bar because the error percentage (±
5.6%) is smaller compared to the percentage error of Sensor B (± 55%).

Precision
It is a measure of the reproducibility of the measurements, i.e. given a fixed value of a quantity;
precision is a measure of agreement within a group of measurements. The term precise means
clearly or sharply defined. Equipment which is precise is not necessarily accurate.
It is defined as the capability of an instrument to show the same reading when used each time
(reproducibility of the instrument).
A precise measurement may not necessarily be accurate and vice versa.
Target Plate
Bull's eye
(a) High precision with

poor accuracy with poor precision
(c) High accuracy with

high precision poor precision
Figure 3.1: Illustration of Accuracy and Precision
Accuracy vs. Precision
This is a systematic error
Figure 3.2: High Precision, but low accuracy

Figure 3.3: Illustration of accuracy and precision
High accuracy means that the mean is close to the true value, while high precision means that the
standard deviation σ is small.
3.2.2 Tolerance
Tolerance is closely related to accuracy of equipment where the accuracy of equipment is
sometimes referred to in the form of tolerance limit. It is defined as the maximum error expected in
an instrument. This explains the maximum deviation of an output component at a certain value. For
example, one resistor chosen at random from a batch having a nominal value 1000 W and tolerance
5% might have an actual value anywhere between 950W and 1050W.
3.2.3 Range or span

It is defined as the range of reading between minimum value and maximum value for the
measurement of an instrument. It has a positive value e.g..: The range or span of an instrument
which has a reading range of –100°C to 100 °C is 200 °C.
3.2.4 Linearity
It is defined as maximum deviation from linear relation between input and output. The output of an
instrument has to be linearly proportionate to the measured quantity.
Linearity is normally shown in the form of full scale percentage (% fs).
The graph shows the output reading of an instrument when a few input readings are entered.
Linearity = maximum deviation from the reading of x and the straight line.
Figure 3.4: Linearity of Measurement System

3.2.5 Sensitivity
It is defined as the ratio of change in output towards the change in input at a steady state condition.
Sensitivity (K) = Δθο/Δθi
Δθο : change in output; Δθi : change in input
Figure 3.5: Sensitivity of Measurement Sytem

Example 1:
The resistance value of a Platinum Resistance Thermometer changes when the temperature
increases. Therefore, the unit of sensitivity for this equipment is Ohm/°C.
Example 2:
Pressure sensor A with a value of 2 bars caused a deviation of 10 degrees. Therefore, the
sensitivity of the equipment is 5 degrees/bar.
Sensitivity of the whole system is (k) = k1 * k2 * k3 *... * kn
Qi Qo
k K K
1 2 3
Example 3:
Consider a measuring system consisting of a transducer, amplifier and a recorder, with sensitivity
for each equipment given below:
Transducer sensitivity 0.2 mV/°C
Amplifier gain 2.0 V/mV
Recorder sensitivity 5.0 mV/V
Therefore,
Sensitivity of the whole system:
(k) = k1 x k2 x k3
k = 0.2 mV/°C x 2.0 V/mV x 5.0 mV/V
k = 2.0 mV/°C
Example 4:
The output of a platinum resistance thermometer (RTD) is as follows:Calculate the sensitivity of
the equipment.

Input(°C) Output(Ohm)
0 0
100 200
200 400
300 600
400 800
Answer:
Draw an input versus output graph. From that graph, the sensitivity is the slope of the
graph.
K = Δθ0/ Δθi graph slope = (400-200) ohm/ (200-100) °C
= 2 ohm/°C
3.2.6 Threshold
When the reading of an input is increased from zero, the input reading will reach a certain value
before change occurs in the output. The minimum limit of the input reading is ‘threshold’. As an
illustration, a car speedometer typically has threshold of about 15kh/hr. This means that, if the
vehicle starts from the rest and accelerates, no output reading is observed on the speedometer until
the speed reaches 15km/hr.
3.2.7 Resolution
The smallest change in input reading that can be traced accurately. This is given in the form ‘% of
full scale (% fs)’. It is available in digital instrumentation. Using a car speedometer as an example
again, this has subdivisions of typically 20km/hr. This means that when the needle is between the
scale markings, we cannot estimate speed more accurately than to the nearest 5km/hr. This figure
of 5 km/hr thus represents the resolution of the instrument.
3.2.8 Dead space/ Dead band

It is defined as the range of input reading when there is no change in output (unresponsive system).
Blacklash in gears is a typical cause of dead space.
Output
Reading
+
-
Measured
Variables
Dead space
Figure 3.6: Dead Space

3.2.8 Hysteresis effects
Figure below illustrates the output characteristics of an instrument that exhibits hysteresis. If the
input measured quantity to the instrument is steadily increased from a negative value, the output
reading varies in the manner shown in curve (a). If the variable is then steadily decreased, the
output varies in the manner shown in curve (b). The non-coincidence between these loading and
unloading curves is known as hysteresis. Two quantities are defined, maximum input hysteresis
and maximum output hysteresis, as shown in figure. These are normally expressed as a percentage
of the full scale input or output reading respectively. For example a thermometer exposed to an
increasing temperature input (i.e. going from 0 to 100 C) may show a slightly different profile to
that for the decreasing input (i.e. decreasing from 100 to 0 C).
Hysteresis is most commonly found in instruments that contain springs, such as the passive
pressure gauge and the Prony brake (used for measuring torque). It is also evident when friction
forces in a system have different magnitudes depending on the direction of movement, such as in
the pendulum-scale mass measuring device. Devices like the mechanical fly ball (a device for
measuring rotational velocity) suffer hysteresis from both of the above sources because they have
friction in moving parts windings formed round an iron core, due to magnetic hysteresis in the iron.
This occurs in devices like the variable inductance displacement transducer, the LVDT and the
rotary differential transformer.
Figure 3.7: Instrument characteristics with hysteresis.
3.2.9 Sensitivity to disturbance

All calibrations and specifications of an instrument are only valid under controlled conditions of
temperature, pressure etc. These standard ambient conditions are usually defined in the instrument
specification. As variations occur in the ambient temperature etc. certain static instrument
characteristics change, and the sensitivity to disturbance is a measure of the magnitude of this
change. Such environmental changes affect instruments in two main ways, known as zero drift and
sensitivity drift. Zero drift is sometimes known by the alternative term, bias.
Zero drift or bias describes the effect where the zero reading of an instrument is modified by a
change in ambient conditions. This causes a constant error that exists over the full range of

measurement of the instrument. Zero drift are commonly found in instruments like voltmeters that
are affected by ambient temperature changes.
Sensitivity drift (also known as scale factor drift) defines the amount by which an instrument’s
sensitivity of measurement varies as ambient conditions change. It is quantified by sensitivity drift
coefficients that define how much drift there is for a unit change in each environmental parameter
that the instrument characteristics are sensitive to. Many components within an instrument are
affected by environmental fluctuations, such as temperature changes: for instance, the modulus of
elasticity of a spring is temperature dependent.
Figure 3.8: Effect of disturbance a) zero drift b) sensitivity drift c) zero drift plus sensitivity
drift

CHAPTER 4
DYNAMIC RESPOSE OF MEASUREMET SYSTEM
4.1 Introduction
It may be defined as an evaluation of the system's ability to faithfully sense, transmit, and present
all the pertinent information included in the measurand and to exclude all else.
Behavior of a system is explained with the help of the following response characteristics of the
particular system:
 Amplitude response,  Frequency response,
 Phase response, and  Rise time or delay.
4.1.1 Amplitude Response

Amplitude response is governed by the system's ability to treat all input amplitudes uniformly.
3.00 300
0.30 200
Gain, eo/ ei
o
0.03 100
10 -4 10 -3 10 -2 10 -1 10 -4 10 -3 10 -2 10 -1
Input, ei Input, ei
Figure 4.1: Amplitude Response
4.1.2 Frequency Response
Good frequency response is obtained when a system treats all the frequency components with equal
faithfulness. Changing the frequency of the input signal should not alter the system's output
magnitude so long as the input amplitude remains unchanged.
300
200
Gain
100
10 3 10 4 10 5 10 6
Frequency, Hz
Figure 4.2: Frequency Response Curve

4.1.3 Phase Response
Amplitude and frequency response are important for all types of input waveforms, simple or
complex. Phase response, however, is of importance primarily for the complex wave only.
For the single sine-wave input, any shift would normally be unimportant. The output produced on
the oscilloscope screen could show the true waveform, and the proper parameters could be
determined. The fact that the shape being shown was actually formed a few microseconds or a few
milliseconds after being generated is of no consequence.
eo
1800
t
Figure 4.3: Phase relationship between input and output of an amplifier
80
60
Phase Lag, degrees
40
20
10 3 10 4 10 5 10 6
Frequency, Hz
Figure 4.4: Phase lag versus Frequency for an Amplifier
Let us consider, however, the complex wave made up of numerous harmonics. Suppose that each
component is delayed by a different amount. The harmonic components would then emerge from
the system in phase relations different from when they entered. The whole waveform and its
amplitudes would be changed, as result of poor phase response.

4.1.4 Delay or Rise Time
The time delay after the step is applied, but before proper output magnitude is reached is known as
rise time. It is a measure of the system's ability to handle transients. Sometimes rise time is defined
specifically as the time, t, required for the system to pass from 10 % to 90 % of its final response.
Alternatively, transients response may be characterized by the settling time required for the system
response to remain within some small percentage of its final value.
i
eo Settling time
90%
10%
t
t
Rise time
Figure 4.5: Rise Time and settling Time

4.2 Mathematical Models
As in so many other areas of engineering application, the most widely useful mathematical model
for the study of measurement-system dynamic response is the ordinary linear differential equation
with constant coefficients.
A general relation between any particular input and the corresponding output, under suitable
simplifying assumptions, can be expressed by a differential equation of the form:
d n q0 d n 1 q0 dq0 d m qi
an  a n 1  ...........  a  a q = b
dt n 1
1 0 0 m
dt n dt dt m
d m 1 qi dqi
+ bm 1 m 1
 ..........  b1  b0 qi ………. (4.1)
dt dt
where, q0 = output quantity,
qi = input quantity,
t = time, and
a's, b's = combinations of system physical parameters, assumed constant.
d
If we define the differential operator, D = , then Equation (4.1) can be written as,
dt
(anDn + an-1Dn-1 + ………. + a1D + a0)q0
= (bmDm + bm-1Dm-1 + ………. + b1D + b0)qi ………. (4.2)

The complete solution of q0 is obtained in two separate parts as
q0 = q0 cf + q0 pi ………. (4.3)
where q0 cf is a complementary function part of the solution, which has n arbitrary constants; and q0
pi is the particular integral part of the solution which has not constant terms. The complementary
function part is the solution when no input is applied. This gives the natural behavior of the system.
The particular integral part is the solution due to imposed input.
4.2.1 Zero Order System

The simplest possible special case of Equation (4.1) occurs when all the a's and b's other than a0
and b0 are assumed to be zero. The differential equation then degenerates into the simple algebraic
equation
a0q0 = b0qi ………. (4.4)
Any instrument or system that closely obeys Equation (4.4) is defined to be a zero-order
instrument. Actually, two constants a0 and b0 are not necessary, and so we define the static
sensitivity (or steady-state gain) as follows:
b0
q0 = qi = k qi ………. (4.5)
a0
b0
where k = = static sensitivity
a0
qi q0
K
Figure 4.6: Block Diagram Representation of a Zero Order System
Since the equation q0 = kqi is a simple algebraic, it is clear that, no matter how qi might vary with
time, the instrument output (reading) follows it perfectly with no distortion or time lag of any sort
[Figure 4.7]. Thus, the zero-order instrument represents ideal or perfect dynamic performance.
i i
qis
t t
qo qo
Kqis
t t
Figure 4.7: Response of Zero Order System
Some examples of zero order system include mechanical level, light-pointer, linear electrical
potentiometer, amplifier, etc.

4.2.2 First Order System
If in Equation (3.1) all the a's and b's other than a1, a0 and b0 are taken as zero, we get
dq 0
a1 + a0q0 = b0qi ………. (4.6)
dt
Any instrument that follows this equation is, by definition, a first order instrument.
While Equation (4.6) has three parameters a1, a0 and b0, only two are really essential since the
whole equation could always be divided through a1, a0 or b0, thus making the coefficient of one of
the terms numerically equal to 1. The conventional procedure is to divide through by a0, which
gives
a1 dq 0 b0
+ q0 = q ………. (4.7)
a 0 dt a0 i
which becomes
dq 0
 + q0 = Kqi ………. (4.8)
dt
or, D  1q0 = Kqi ………. (4.9)
b0
where k = = static sensitivity, and
a0
a1
 = = time constant.
a0
The operational transfer function of any first order instrument is

q0
D  = K ………. (4.10)
qi D  1
The block diagram representation is shown in Figure 3.8.
qi K q0
D + 1
Figure 4.8: Block Diagram Representation of First Order Instruments
Some examples of first order system are: temperature measurement by mercury-in-glass

thermometer, thermocouples, and thermistors; build-up air pressure in bellows, RC network, RL
network, etc.

4.2.3 Second Order System
If in Equation (4.1) all the a's and b's other than a2, a1, a0 and b0 are taken as zero, the general
differential equation reduces to
d 2 q0 dq 0
a2 + a1 + a0q0 = b0qi ………. (4.11)
dt 2 dt
Dividing Equation (3.12) by a0, we get
a 2 d 2 q0 a1 dq0 b0
  q 0 = qi ………. (4.12)
a0 dt 2 a0 dt a0
The essential parameters in Equation (4.12) can be reduced to three:

b0
K = = static sensitivity
a0
a0
n = = undamped natural frequency, (rad/s), and
a2
a1
 = = damping ratio, dimensionless
2 a0 a 2
which gives,
 D2 2D 
   1 q 0 = Kqi ………. (4.13)
 n
2
n 
An instrument whose performance is governed by this equation is termed as a second order system.
The operational transfer function of a second order system is given by
q0
D  =
K
………. (4.14)
D /n  2D /  n  1
2 2
qi
qi K q0
D /n2
2
+ 2D/
n + 1
Figure 4.9: Block Diagram Representation of Second Order Systems
The block diagram representation of second order system is shown in Figure 4.9. Some examples
of second order system are force measuring spring scale, spring mass under impressed force, L-C-R
circuits, piezoelectric pick-ups, recorders, etc.

4.3 Characteristic of First Order System
The standard test signals used for determining system performance are
 Step Input
 Ramp Input
 Impulse Input
(a) Step Input

A step input represents an application of a sudden change. Mathematically, a unit step function u(t)
is defined as:
qi(t) = 1; t  0
= 0; t < 0 ………. (4.15)
A unit step input is designated by u(t). Therefore, a unit step input is written as,
qi(t) = u(t) ………. (4.16)
Thus a unit step function represents a signal which changes its level from 0 to 1 in zero time and
the unit magnitude is maintained thereafter. The function is plotted in Figure 4.10 (a).
qi qi
u(t) Au(t)
t t
(a) (b)
Figure 4.10: (a) Unit Step Function (b) Step Function of magnitude A
Figure 4.10 (b) shows a step input of magnitude A wherein the magnitude changes from 0 to A in
zero time. This input is mathematically represented as
qi(t) = A; t  0
= 0; t < 0 ………. (4.17)
or, simply
qi(t) = A u(t) ………. (4.18)
(b) Ramp Input

It represents an input signal which changes at a constant rate with respect to time. A unit ramp
input signal starts at a value of zero and increases with constant slope of unity with respect to time.
A unit ramp input signal is shown in Figure 4.11(a). It can be expressed mathematically as:
qi(t) = t; t > 0
= 0; t < 0 ………. (4.19)
or, simply
qi(t) = t u(t) ………. (4.20)

i i
t At
t t t t
(a) (b)
Figure 4.11: (a) Unit Ramp Function (b) Ramp Function of Magnitude A
A ramp input signal of amplitude A is shown in Figure 4.11(b). Mathematically this input can be
expressed as:
qi(t) = At; t > 0
= 0; t < 0 ………. (4.21)
or, simply
qi(t) = At u(t) ………. (4.22)
(c) Impulse Input

A unit impulse is defined as a signal which has zero value everywhere except at t = 0 where the
magnitude is finite. The function is generally called a  (delta) function. The  function has the
following properties,
(t) = 0; t  0

and  (t)dt


= 1, where  0 ………. (4.23)
i i
A/
1/ 
 t  t
(a) (b)
Figure 4.12: (a) Unit Impulse Function (b) Impulse Function of Strength A
Since a perfect impulse function is not practically realizable, it is approximated by a pulse of small
width having a unit area as shown in Figure 4.12 (a). The diagram shows a pulse with an amplitude
of 1/ and duration . Figure 4.12 (b) shows an impulse function of strength A.
4.3.1 Step Response of First Order Instruments

To apply a step input to a system, we assume that initially it is in equilibrium, with q i = q0 0, when
at time t = 0 the input quantity increases instantly by an amount qis (Figure 4.13) i.e.,
qi =0 for t < 0
= qis for t  0 ………. (4.24)

Hence, for t > 0, Equation (4.10) becomes
D  1q0 = Kqis ………. (4.25)
It can be shown generally (by mathematically reasoning) or in any physical problem, such as the
thermometers (by physical reasoning), that the initial condition for this situation is q 0 for t = 0+.
The complementary function solution is determined as
D  1q0 =0
t

 q0 cf =C e 
(Transient component) ………. (4.26)
while the particular solution is

q0 pi = Kqis (Steady state component) .……. (4.27)
Hence the complete solution is

t


q0 =C e + Kqis ………. (4.28)
Applying the initial condition (q0 = 0 when t = 0), we get

 C = – K qis ………. (4.29)
which gives finally
q0 = Kqis (1 – e-t/) ………. (4.30)
Examination of Equation (4.31) shows that the speed of response depends on only the value of 
and is faster if  is smaller (Figure 4.13). Thus in first order systems we strive to minimize  for
faithful dynamic measurements.
These results may be non dimensionalized as
t
q0 

=1– e ………. (4.31)
Kq is
i
qis
t
qo
Small 
Large 
Kq
is
t
Figure 4.13: Step Response of First Order Instrument

q0/Kqis
t/ q0/Kqis
1.0
0 0
0.8
1 0.632
0.6
2 0.865
0.4 3 0.950
0.2 4 0.982
 1.000
0
Figure 4.14: Non-dimensionalised Step Response of First Order Instrument
The dynamic error (em) at any time is the difference between the ideal (no time lag) value and the
actual measures value of the quantity is given by
q0
em = qis – ………. (4.33)
K
Substituting value of q0 from Equation (4.31) in Equation (4.33),
em = qis – qis (1 – e-t/) = qis e-t/ ………. (4.34)
which also may be nondimensionalized as
em
= e-t/ ………. (4.35)
q is
The normalized dynamic error em/qis versus t/ is shown in Figure 4.15.
m is
t/ e m /qis
1.0
0 1.000
0.8
1 0.368
0.6
2 0.135
0.4 3 0.050
0.2 4 0.018
 0
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 t/
Figure 4.15: Non-dimensionalized Dynamic Error for First Order Instrument

Time Constant
If we substitute the magnitude of one time constant for t in Equation (4.32),
q0 = Kqis (1 – e-1) = Kqis (1 – 0.368) = 0.632 qmax
from which we see that 63.2 % of the dynamic portion of the process will have been completed.
Two time constants yield 86.5 %, three time constants yield 95.0 %; four time constants yields
988.2 %, and so on. These percentages of completed processes are important because they will
always be the same regardless of the process, provided that the process is governed by the
conditions of the step-excited first order system. It is often assumed that a process is completed
during a period of five time constants.
For a rising exponential function the time constant  is defined as the time to reach 63.2 % of its
final value. Similarly for a decaying exponential function the time constant is defined as the time
taken to fall to 36.8 % of its initial value.
4.3.2 Ramp Response of First Order Instruments

To apply a ramp input to a system, we assume that initially the system is in equilibrium, with qi =
.
q0 = 0, when at t = 0 the input suddenly starts to change at a constant rate of q is . We thus have
qi = 0; t0
.
= q is t t  0 ………. (4.36)
and therefore
.
D  1q0 = q is t ………. (4.37)
The necessary initial condition again can be shown to be q0 = 0 for t = 0+. Solution of Equation
(4.37) gives
q0 cf = C e-t/
.
q0 pi = K q is (t – )
.
q0 = C e-t/ + K q is (t – )
and applying initial condition (q0 = 0, t = 0) gives

.
C = – K q is 
which gives finally

.
q0 =K q is ( e-t/ + t – ) ………. (4.38)

We again define measurement error em by
q0 . .
em = qi – = – q is  e-t/ + q is  ………. (4.39)
K
m /em,ss
qi
q /K
0 1.0
Steady state time

lag = 
em,ss = q is 
t t/
0 1 2 3 4 5
(a) (b)
Figure 4.16: Ramp Response of First Order Instrument
4.3.3 Frequency Response of First Order Instruments

The frequency response of a system consists of curves of amplitude ration and phase shift as a
function of frequency. The frequency of any linear system may be obtained by getting the
particular solution of its differential equation with
qi = 0 for t < 0
= Ai sint for t  0
Much quicker and easier methods are available. These methods depend on the concept of the
sinusoidal transfer function. The sinusoidal transfer function of a system is obtained substituting i
for D in the operational transfer function;
q0
Sinusoidal transfer function = i 
qi
bm i   bm1 i   ....  b1 i   b0
m m 1
a n i   a n1 i   ....  a1 i   a0

= n n 1
………. (4.40)
where i =  1 and  = angular frequency (rad/s). For any given frequency , Equation (3.40)
shows that q0/qi (i) is a complex number, which can always be put in the polar form M < . The
magnitude M of the complex number is the amplitude ration A0/Ai, while the angle  is the phase
angle by which the output q0 leads the input qi. If the output lags the input  is negative.

Equation (4.40) may be applied to the problem of finding the response of first order systems to
sinusoidal inputs. We have
 tan  
q0
i  =
K
=
K
………. (4.41)
qi i  1  2 2  1
Thus the amplitude ratio is
A0 q
= 0 i 
K
= ………. (4.42)
Ai qi  2 2  1
and the phase angle is
q0
 =  i  = tan-1(-) ………. (4.43)
qi
A nondimensionalized representation of the frequency response of any first order system may be
obtained by writing Equation (3.41) as
q0 / K
i  =  tan 1   
1
………. (4.44)
qi  2 2  1
and plotting as in Figure 4.17.
q 0 /K
qi Degrees
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 t
1.0 0
0.8
-20
0.6
-40
0.4
-60
0.2
0 t -80
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 -90
(a) (b)
Figure 3.17: Frequency Response of First Order System

4.3.4 Impulse Response of First Order Instruments
The impulse function of strength (area) A is defines by the limiting process
lim
Impulse function of strength A = p(t ) ………. (4.46)
T 0
We now find the response of a first order system to an impulse input. We do this by finding the
response to the pulse p(t) and then applying the limiting process to the result. For 0 < t < T we have
KA
D  1q0 = Kqi = ………. (4.47)
T
Since, up until time T, this no different from a step input of size A/T, our initial condition is q0 = 0
at t = 0+, and the complete solution is
KA
q0 = (1  e t /  ) ………. (4.48)
T
However, this solution is valid only up to time T. At this time we have
KA
q0|t = T = (1  e T /  ) ………. (4.49)
T
Now for t > T, differential equation becomes,
D  1q0 = Kqi = 0

which gives
q0 = C e-t/ ………. (4.50)
The constant C can be found by imposing initial condition [Equation (4.49)]

KA
(1  e T /  ) = C e-T/ ………. (4.51)
T
KA(1  e T /  )
 C = ………. (4.52)
Te T / 
giving finally
KA(1  e T /  )e t / 
q0 = ………. (4.53)
Te T / 
Figure 4.18(b) shows a typical response, and Figure 4.18 (c) shows the effect of cutting T in half.
As T is made shorter and shorter, the first part (t < T) of the response becomes of negligible

consequence, so that we can get an expression for q0 by taking the limit of Equation (4.53) as T 
0.
lim  KA(1  e T /  )  t /  lim 1  e T / 

 e = KA e -t/
T  0  Te T /   T  0 Te T / 
lim 1  e T /  0
-t/
= KA e =
T 0 T 0
which takes an indeterminate form.
Applying L'Hospital's Rule, we get
lim 1  e T /  lim (1 /  )e T /  1
= = ………. (4.54)
T 0 T T 0 1 
Thus we have finally for the impulse response of a first order system
KA
q0 = e t /  ………. (4.55)

which is plotted in Figure 4.18(d).
p(t)
qi
A/T A/T
q0
t t
T (a) T (b)
q0
qi
2A/T
KA/
q0
t t
T/2 (c) (d)
Figure 3.18: Impulse Response of First Order Instrument
4.4 Characteristic of Second Order System

Dynamic behavior of a second order system is given by
 D 2 2D 
 
  2    1 q0 = Kqi ………. (4.14)
 n n 

The transient response (complementary function) is obtained from the auxiliary equation which is
set by replacing the transfer operation D by an algebraic variable m and setting the input q i to zero.
Thus the auxiliary equation is
 m2 2m 
   1 =0 ………. (4.56)
 2  
 n n 
The response of the system depends upon the root of the characteristic Equation (3.56). The two
roots of the characteristic equation are determined as
 2 /  n  4 2 /  n  4 /  n
2 2
m1, m2 =
2 /n
2
m1, m2 =   n   n  2  1 ………. (4.57)
Hence the complementary function becomes,
q0, cf = Ae m1t  Be m2t ………. (4.58)
where A and B are arbitrary constants to be determine from initial conditions, while m 1 and m2 are
the roots of the auxiliary equation. The roots are three different types depending upon the value of
. Hence there are three types of responses and consequently three types of systems. The three
types of systems are:
Overdamped Systems
When  > 1, the characteristic equation will have two real and unequal, and the system is called
overdamped system.
Critically Damped Systems
When  = 1, the roots will be real and equal, then system is called critically damped system.
Underdamped Systems
When  < 1, the equation will have complex conjugate pairs of roots, then the system is called
underdamped system.
4.4.1 Step Response of Second Order Systems

To study the step response of a second order system, consider the differential equation,
 D2 2D 
  1 ………. (4.59)
 2  
q0 = Kqis

 n n 
with a set of initial conditions
q0 = 0 at t = 0+
dq 0
and, =0 at t = 0+ ………. (4.60)
dt
The particular solution of Equation (4.59) is clearly qo pi = Kqis. The complementary solution takes
one of the three possible forms, depending on whether the roots of the characteristic equation are

real and unequal (overdamped), real and equal (critically damped system), or complex
(underdamped system).
Overdamped System
The complete solution of the Equation (4.59) is given by
q0 = q0 cf + q0 pi
= Ae m1t  Be m2t + Kqis

    2 1  t     2 1  t
  n   n
= Ae + Be + Kqis ………. (4.61)
Differentiating Equation (3.61), we get
dq 0
dt

= A     1 ne
2
  

  2 1  nt


+ B    1 ne
2
     2 1  t
  n
.. (4.62)
Now applying initial condition (q0 = 0; t = 0+) in Equation (4.61), we get
   2 1    2 1
A =  Kqis and B = Kqis
2  1 2
2  2 1
The step response for an overdamped system is obtained by substituting A and B into Equation
(4.61),
   2 1     2 1  t    2 1     2 1  t
q0 =  Kq is e   n
+ Kq is e   n
+ Kqis
2  2 1 2  2 1
… (4.65)
Equation (4.65) can also be expressed in nondimensional form as,
q0    2 1     2 1  t    2 1     2 1  t
= e  n
+ e  n
+1 .… (4.66)
Kq is 2  2 1 2  2 1
Critically Damped System

q0 = q0 cf + q0 pi
=  A  Bt e  t + Kqis
n
………. (4.67)

dq 0
=  A n  B1   n t  e n
 t
………. (4.68)
dt
Now applying initial condition (q0 = 0; t = 0+) in Equation (4.67),
A = – Kqis ………. (4.69)
Again applying initial condition (dq0/dt = 0; t = 0+) in Equation (4.68),

B = An = – Kqisn ………. (4.70)
The step response for a critically damped system is obtained by substituting A and B into Equation
(4.67),
 n t
q0 = (– Kqis – Kqisnt) e + Kqis ………. (4.71)
q0  t
= – (1 – nt) e n + 1 ………. (4.72)
Kq is
Underdamped System
q0 =  
e  nt A cos  n t 1   2  B sin  n t 1   2 + Kqis ……. (4.73)
dq 0
=
dt
B n   
1   2  A n cos  n t 1   2  A n 1   2  B n sin  n t 1   2 
e  nt … (4.74)
Now applying initial condition (q0 = 0; t = 0+) in Equation (4.73),

A = – Kqis ………. (4.75)
Again applying initial condition (dq0/dt = 0; t = 0+) in Equation (4.74),

 
B =A = – Kqis ………. (4.76)
1 2
1 2
The step response for an underdamped system is obtained by substituting A and B into Equation
(4.73),

  
  Kq cos  t 1   2  Kq 2   n t
sin  n t 1   e
q0 = is n is
 + Kqis
 1   2

……. (4.77)
 
q0  cos  t 1   2   sin  t 1   2   n t
e
=–  n n
 + 1 .... (4.78)
Kq is  1   2

Equation (4.78) can be expressed in an alternative form as
q0
Kq is
= 
1
1 2
 
sin 1   2  n t   e  nt + 1 ………. (4.79)
where,   sin 1 1   2 .
Figure 4.18: Non-dimensional Step-function Response of Second Order Systems
Comparison of Step Response of Overdamped, Critically Damped and Underdamped System

 An overdamped system responds to any time varying input in a sluggish manner without any
oscillation about the final steady-state position. There is no overshoot in step response. Due to
their sluggish nature, the over damped systems are usually unsuitable for many control
applications. However, this type of system may be used in measurement, where time is not of
prime importance.
 The response of critically damped system is rapid and the system reaches its final steady-state
condition smoothly without oscillations. There is no overshot in the step response. This system
is used when fast measurement is required.

 The underdamped system follows the input with oscillation about its final steady position. The
underdamped system has very fast initial response which is useful for various measurement
applications, such as impulse measurement.
4.4.2 Ramp Response of Second Order Systems

The differential equation here is
 D 2 2D  .
 q
  2    1 0
= K q is t ………. (4.80)
 n n 
q0 = 0 at t = 0+
dq 0
and, =0 at t = 0+ ………. (4.81)
dt
The solutions are found to be

Overdamped System
.
q0 .
2 q is  2 2  1  2  2  1     2 1  n t  2 2  1  2  2  1     2 1  t 
 .. (4.82)
= q is t – 1 e 
 e  n
K n  4  2  1 4  2  1 
 

.
q0 . 2 q is    t 
= q is t – 1  e  nt 1  n  ………. (4.83)
K n   2 
Underdamped System
 
.
q0 . 2 q is  e  nt
= q is t – 1  sin 1   2  n t   ………. (4.84)
K  n  2 1   2
 
2 1   2
where tan  
2 2  1
.
Figure 4.19 shows the general character of the response. There is a steady state error 2 q is /n.
.
Since the value of q is is set by measured quantity, the steady –state error can reduced only by
reducing  and increasing n. For a given n, reduction of  results in larger oscillations. There is
also a steady –state time lag 2/n. Figure 4.20 gives a set of non-dimensionalized curves that
summarize system behavior.

q i = qis t
q0 /K
Steady state time

lag = 2n
em,ss = 2qis / n
Figure 4.19: Ramp Response of Second Order System
Figure 4.20: Nondimensionalized Ramp Response
4.4.3 Frequency Response of Second Order Systems

When a sinusoidal input of the form qi = A sin t is applied to the system, a steady state solution of
the differential equation represents a sinusoidal output with a different amplitude and phase shift
but having the same frequency. The sinusoidal transfer function of a second order system is
expressed as
q0
 j  = 2
K
………. (4.85)
qi  j   j 
   2    1
 n   n 
which can be put in the form
q0 / K
 j  =
1
< ………. (4.86)
qi 1   /     4
n
2 2 2
 /  n 
2

2
 = tan 1 ………. (4.87)
 /n  n /
Let u be the normalized frequency = /n, then Equations (3.86) and (3.87) can be rewritten as
q0 / K 1
= ………. (4.88)
qi 1  u   2u 
2 2 2
 2u 
and  = tan 1   2 
………. (4.89)
 1 u 
Figure 4.21: Frequency Response of Second Order System
Figure 4.21 gives the non-dimensionalized frequency response curves. Clearly, increasing n will
increase the range of frequencies for which the amplitude–ratio curve is relatively flat; thus a high
n is needed to measure accurately high-frequency qi's. An optimum range of value for  is
indicated by both amplitude–ratio and phase–angle curves. The widest flat amplitude ratio exists
for  of about 0.6 to 0.7. While zero phase angle would be ideal, it is rarely possible to realize this
even approximately. Actually, if the main interest is in q0 reproducing the correct shape of qi and if
a time delay is acceptable, we show shortly that  need not be zero; rather, it should vary linearly
with frequency . Examining the phase curves of Figure 4.21, we note that the curves for  = 0.6 to
0.7 are nearly straight for the widest frequency range. These considerations lead to the widely
accepted choice of  = 0.6 to 0.7 as the optimum value of damping for second order instruments.

Resonant Frequency
The frequency at which the magnitude ratio q0/Kqi has the maximum value is known as the
resonant frequency. Let r be the resonant frequency and ur (= r/n) be the normalized resonant
frequency.
The normalized resonant frequency can be determined by differentiating Equation (4.88) with
respect to u and putting the differential equal to zero for u = ur,
    4u 1  u   8 u 
3

 2u r 
1 2
 1  ur
2 2 2 2 2
r r r =0
2
The first term of the above product expression cannot be zero, hence

 4u r 1  u r  8 2 u r
2
 =0
or, 1 – ur2 = 2 2
or, ur2 = 1 – 22
 ur = 1  2 2 ………. (4.90)
Hence the resonant frequency is given by
r = n 1  2 2 ………. (4.91)
Resonant Peak
The maximum value of magnitude ratio occurs at  = r. This value is known as resonant peak.
The value of resonant peak can be determined by substituting u = ur = 1  2 2 in Equation (4.88),
q0 / K 1
=
qi max 1  1  2  2 2

 4 2 1  2 2 
1 1
= =
4  4  8
4 2 4 2

4 1  2 2 
q0 / K 1
 = ………. (4.92)
qi max 2 1  2 2
It is clear from the Equation (3.88) that for   1/2 (= 0.707), there is no resonant frequency and
hence there is no resonant peak.
Bandwidth
If we examine Figure 3.21, it is found that for frequency above   r, the amplitude ratio
decreases. The frequency at which the magnitude ratio has a value of 0.707 is called cut off
frequency C. Above the cut-off frequency C, the magnitude ratio decreases below 0.707.

Frequency C represents half power point. The band of frequencies from zero to cut-off frequency
C is called the bandwidth of the system.
Measurement systems are low pass filters as the value of amplitude ratio is unity at  = 0. But as
the frequency of the input signals increases, the output gets attenuated. Bandwidth is, therefore,
indicative of the satisfactory reproduction of the input signal.
Let ub (= b/n) be normalized bandwidth where b = bandwidth in rad/s. Then from Equation
(3.88),
q0 / K 1
= = 0.707
qi 1  u 
b
2 2
 2u b 
2
or, 1  u 
b
2 2
 2ub 
2
=2
or, ub4 + (42 – 2) ub2 – 1 = 0
Solving the above quadratic equation, we get
ub = 1  2 2  2  4 2
 4 4  ………. (4.93)
The denormalized bandwidth is then given by
b = n 1  2 2  2  4 2
 4 4  ………. (4.94)
4.4.4 Impulse Response of Second Order Systems

For the first order system, we showed that the impulse response is equivalent to the free response if
the initial (t = 0+) conditions produced by the impulse are taken into account. To find the initial
conditions produced by applying an impulse of area A to a second order system, redraw the block
diagram of Figure 3.22(a) as in Figure 3.22(b). In Figure 3.22(c) the impulse is applied at qi, and
the propagation of this input signal is traced through the rest of the diagram. The analysis shows
.
that at t = 0+ we have q0 = 0 and q 0 = KAn2. The differential equation to be solved is then
 D 2 2D 
 q
  2    1 0
=0 ………. (4.95)
 n n 
q0 = 0 at t = 0+
dq 0
and, = KAn2 at t = 0+ ………. (4.96)
dt
The solutions are found to be

Overdamped System
q0 1      2 1  n t     2 1  t

=  e 
 e  n
 ………. (4.97)
KA n 2  2 1  
q0
=  n te  nt ………. (4.98)
KA n
Underdamped System
q0
KA n
=
1
1 2

e  nt sin 1   2  n t  ………. (4.99)
The results are plotted in Figure 4.23.
Figure 4.23: Nondimensionalized Impulse Response of Second Order System
4.5 Physical Examples of Zero, First and Second Order Systems

4.5.1 Zero Order System
A practical example of a zero order system is the displacement measuring potentiometer. In such
instrument a strip of resistance material is excited with a voltage and provided with a sliding
contact, as shown in Figure 3.24(a). If the resistance is distributed linearly along length L, we may
write
xi
e0 = Eb = Kxi ………. (4.100)
L
where K (static sensitivity) = Eb/L V/m.
From Equation (4.100), it is clear that a liner relationship exists between the input displacement
and the output voltage as shown in Figure 4.24(b).

e0
Eb
Eb L +
xi
e0
- xi
L
(a) (b)
qi qo
qi K
qis
t
qo

Kqis
t 
(c) Step Response (d) Frequency Response
Figure 4.24: Response of Resistance Potentiometer
If this device is examined more critically, it would be found that it is not exactly a zero order
instrument. This is simply a manifestation of the universal rule that no mathematical model can
exactly represent any physical system. In this present example, the output terminals must be
attached to some voltage-measuring devices (such as an oscilloscope). Such a device will always
draw some current (however small) from the potentiometer. Thus, when xi changes, the
potentiometer windings current will also change. This is itself would cause no dynamic distortion
or lag if the potentiometer were a pure resistance. However, the idea of a pure resistance is a
mathematical model, not a real system; thus the potentiometer will have some (however small)
inductance and capacitance. If xi varied relatively slow, theses parasitic inductance and capacitance
effects will not be apparent. However, for sufficiently fast variation of x i, these effects are no
longer negligible and cause dynamic errors between xi and e0. The reasons why potentiometer is
normally called a zero-order system are as follows:
 The parasitic inductance and capacitance can be made very small by design.
 The speeds (frequency) of motion to be measured are not high enough to make the
inductive or capacitive effect noticeable.
Another aspect of non-ideal behavior in a real potentiometer comes to light when we realize that
the sliding contact must be attached to the body whose motion is to be measured. Thus, there is a
mechanical loading effect, due to the inertia of the sliding contact and its friction, which will cause
the measured motion xi to be different from that which would occur if the potentiometer were not
present. Thus the effect is different in kind from the inductive and capacitive phenomena
mentioned earlier, since they affected the relation [Equation (4.100)] between e0 and xi whereas the
mechanical loading has no effect on this relation but rather, makes xi different from the undisturbed
case.

4.5.2 First Order System
Most of the temperature measurement devices behave as first order system. As an example, let us
consider the liquid-in-glass thermometer of Figure 4.25. The input (measured) quantity here is the
temperature Ti(t) of the fluid surrounding the bulb of the thermometer, and the output is the
displacement x0 of the thermometer fluid in the capillary tube. We assume the temperature Ti(t) is
uniform throughout the fluid at any given time, but may vary with time in an arbitrary fashion. The
principle of operation of such a thermometer is the thermal expansion of the filling fluid which
drives the liquid column up or down in response to temperature changes. Since this liquid column
has inertia, mechanical lags will be involved in moving the fluid from one level to another.
However, we assume that this lag is negligible compared with the thermal lag involved in
transferring heat from the surrounding fluid through the bulb wall and into the thermometer fluid.
This assumption rests on experience, judgment, order-of-magnitude calculations, and ultimately
experimental verification of the results predicted by the analysis. Assumption of negligible
mechanical lag allows us to relate the temperature of the fluid in the bulb to the reading x0 by the
instantaneous algebraic equation
K exVb
x0 = Ttf ………. (4.101)
AC
where x0 = displacement from reference mark, m
Ttf = temperature of fluid in bulb, Ttf = 0 when x0 = 0, 0C
Kex = differential expansion coefficient of thermometer fluid and bulb glass, m3/m3.0C
Vb = volume of bulb, m3
AC = cross-sectional area of capillary tube, m2
Figure 4.25: Liquid-in-glass Thermometer
To get a differential equation relating input and output in this thermometer, we consider
conservation of energy over an infinitesimal time dt for the thermometer bulb:
Heat in – heat out = energy stored
Assuming no heat loss,
UAb (Ti – Ttf) dt – 0 = VbCdTtf

or, UAb (Ti – Ttf) dt = VbCdTtf ………. (4.102)
where, U = overall heat transfer coefficient across bulb wall, W/m2.0C
Ab = heat-transfer area of bulb wall, m2
 = mass density of thermometer fluid, kg/m3
C = specific heat of thermometer fluid, J/kg.0C.
Equation (4.102) involves many assumptions:

 The bulb wall and fluid films on each side are pure resistance to heat transfer with no heat-
storage capacity. This will be a good assumption if the heat-storage capacity (mass 
specific heat) of the bulb wall and fluid films is small compared with VbC for the bulb.
 The overall coefficient U is constant. Actually, films coefficients and bulb-wall
conductivity all change with temperature, but these changes are quite small as long as the
temperature does not vary over wide ranges.
 The heat transfer area Ab is constant. Actually, expansion and contraction would cause this
to vary, but this effect should be quite small.
 No heat is lost from the thermometer bulb by conduction up the stem. Heat loss will be
small if the stem is of small diameter, made of a poor conductor, and immersed in the fluid
over a great length and if the exposed end is subjected to an air temperature not much
different from Ti and Ttf.
 The mass of fluid in the bulb is constant. Actually mass must enter or leave the bulb
whenever the level in the capillary tube changes. For a fine capillary and a large bulb, this
effect should be small.
 The specific heat C is constant. Again, this fluid property varies with temperature, but the
variation is slight except for large temperature changes.
The above list of assumptions is not complete, but should give some appreciation of the
discrepancies between a mathematical model and the real system it represents. Many of these
assumptions could be relaxed to get a more accurate model, but we would pay a heavy price in
increased mathematical complexity. The choice of assumptions that are just good enough for the
needs of the job at hand is one of the most difficult and important tasks of the engineer.
Returning to Equation (4.102), we may write it as

VbCdTtf = UAbTidt – UAbTtfdt
or, VbCdTtf + UAbTtfdt = UAbTidt
dTtf
 VbC + UAbTtf = UAbTi ………. (4.103)
dt
Using Equation (3.101), we get

CAC dx0 UAb AC
+ x0 = UAbTi ………. (4.104)
K ex dt K exVb

which we recognize to be the form of Equation (4.9), and so we immediately define
K exVb
K = m/0C ………. (4.105)
AC
CVb
 = s ………. (4.106)
UAb
As we know the fast response requires a small value of , we can examine this first-order
instrument to analyze physical changes would be needed to reduce . Equation (4.106) shows that 
may be reduced by
 Reducing , C, and Vb.
 Increasing U and Ab.
Since  and C are properties of the fluid filling the thermometer, they cannot be varied
independently of each other, and so for small  we search for fluid with a small C product. The
bulb volume Vb may be reduced, but this will also reduce Ab unless some extended surface heat-
transfer augmentation (such as fins on the bulb) is introduced. Even more significant is the effect of
reduced Vb on the static sensitivity K, as given by Equation (4.105). We see that attempts to reduce
 by decreasing Vb will result in reductions in K. Thus increased speed of response is traded off
lower sensitivity. This trade off is not unusual and will be observed in many other instruments.
The fact that  depends on U means that we cannot state that a certain thermometer has a certain
time constant and but only that a specific thermometer used in a certain fluid under certain heat
transfer conditions (say, free or forced convection) has a certain time constant. This is because U
depends partly on the value of the film coefficient of heat transfer at the outside of the bulb, which
varies greatly with changes in fluid (liquid or gas), flow velocity, etc. For example, a thermometer
in stirred oil might have a time constant of 5 s while the same thermometer in stagnant air would
have a  of perhaps 100 s. Thus we must always be careful in giving (or using) performance data to
be sure that the conditions of use correspond to those in force during calibration or that proper
corrections are applied.
4.5.3 Second Order System

A good example of second order system is the force measuring scale of Figure 4.26. We assume
the applied force fi has a frequency components only well below the natural frequency of the spring
itself. Then the main dynamic effect of the spring may be taken into account by adding one third of
the spring's mass to the main moving mass. The total mass we call M. The spring is assumed linear
with spring constant KS (in N/m). Although in real scale there might be considerable dry friction,
we assume perfect film lubrication and therefore a viscous damping effect with constant B (in
N/ms).

Figure 4.26: Force Measuring Spring Scale
The scale can be adjusted so that x0 = 0 when fi = 0 (gravity force will then drop out of the
equation), which yields
 forces = (mass)(acceleration)
dx 0 d 2 x0
fi – B 2 – Ksx0 =M ………. (4.107)
dt dt 2
which can be expressed in the form
(MD2 + BD + KS) x0 = fi ………. (4.108)
Noting this to fit the second order model, we immediately define

1
K = m/N ………. (4.109)
KS
KS
 = rad/s ……….. (4.110)
M
B
 = ………. (4.111)
2 KS M

CHAPTER 5
SENSORS
5.1 Introduction
A measuring device passes through two stages while measuring a signal. First, the measurand is
sensed and then, the measured signal is transuded (or converted) into a form that is particularly
suitable for transmitting, signal conditioning, processing, or driving a controller or actuator. For
this reason, output of the transducer stage is often an electrical signal.
Measurand Signal Transmittable Variable

(Typically Transducer (Typically Electrical)
Sensor
Analog Signal)
Figure 5.1: Schematic Representation of Measuring Device
A sensor (also called detector) is a converter that measures a physical quantity and converts it into
a signal which can be read by an observer or by an (today mostly electronic) instrument. For
example, a mercury-in-glass thermometer converts the measured temperature into expansion and
contraction of a liquid which can be read on a calibrated glass tube. A thermocouple converts
temperature to an output voltage which can be read by a voltmeter. For accuracy, most sensors
are calibrated against known standards.
A transducer is a device that converts a signal in one form of energy to another form of energy.
A complex measuring device can have more than one sensing stage. Sensor and transducer stages
are functional stages, and sometimes it is not easy or even feasible to identify physical elements
associated with them. Following the common practice, the terms sensor and transducer will be used
interchangeably to denote measuring instruments.
Various transducers and their operation are listed in Table 5.1.
Table 5.1: Some Primary Detector-Transducer Elements and Operations they Perform
Element Operation
1. Mechanical
A. Contacting spindle, pin, or finger Displacement to displacement
B. Elastic member
1. Load cells
a. Tension/compression Force to linear displacement
b. Bending Force to linear displacement
c. Torsion Force to angular displacement
2. Proving ring Force to linear displacement

3. Bourdon tube Pressure to displacement
4. Bellows Pressure to displacement

5. Diaphragm Pressure to displacement
6. Helical spring Force to linear displacement
C. Mass
1. Seismic mass Force function to relative displacement
2. Pendulum Gravitational acceleration to frequency or period
3. Pendulum Force to Displacement
4. Liquid column Pressure to displacement
D. Thermal
1. Thermocouple Temperature to electric potential
2. Biomaterials (includes mercury in Temperature to displacement
glass)
3. Thermistor Temperature to resistance change
4. Chemical phase Temperature to phase change
5. Pressure thermometer Temperature to pressure
E. Hydropneumatic
1. Static
a. Float Fluid level to displacement
b. Hydrometer Specific gravity to relative displacement
2. Dynamic
a. Orifice Fluid velocity to pressure change
b. Venturi Fluid velocity to pressure change
c. Pitot tube Fluid velocity to pressure change
d. Vanes Velocity to force
e. Turbines Linear to angular velocity
2. Electrical
Element Operation
A. Resistive
1. Contacting Displacement to resistance change
2. Variable-length conductor Displacement to resistance change
3. Variable-area conductor Displacement to resistance change
4. Variable dimensions of conductor Strain to resistance change
5. Variable receptivity of conductor Temperature to resistance change
B. Inductive
1. Variable coil dimensions Displacement to change in inductance
2. Variable air gap Displacement to change in inductance
3. Changing core material Displacement to change in inductance
4. Changing core positions Displacement to change in inductance
5. Changing coil positions Displacement to change in inductance
6. Moving coil Velocity to change in induced voltage
7. Moving permanent magnet Velocity to change in induced voltage

8. Moving core Velocity to change in induced voltage
C. Capacitive
1. Changing air gap Displacement to change in capacitance
2. Changing plate areas Displacement to change in capacitance
3. Changing dielectric constant Displacement to change in capacitance
D. Piezoelectric Displacement to voltage and/or voltage to

displacement
E. Semiconductor junction
1. Junction threshold voltage Temperature to voltage change
2. Photodiode current Light intensity to current
F. Photoelectric
1. Photovoltaic Light intensity to voltage
2. Photoconductive Light intensity to resistance change
3. Photoemissive Light intensity to current
G. Hall effect Displacement to voltage
Close scrutiny of Table 5.1 reveals that, whereas many of the mechanical sensors transduce the
input to displacement, many of the electrical sensors change displacement to an electrical output.
This is quite fortunate, for it yields practical combinations in which the mechanical sensor serves as
the primary transducers and the electrical transducers as the secondary. The two most commonly
used electrical means are variable resistance and variable inductance, although others, such as
photoelectric and piezoelectric effects, are also of considerable importance.
In addition to the inherent compatibility of the mechano-electric transducer combination, electrical

elements have several important relative advantages:
1. Amplification or attenuation can be easily obtained.
2. Mass-inertia effects are minimized.
3. The effects of friction are minimized.
4. An output power of almost any magnitude can be provided.
5. Remote indication or recording is feasible.
6. The transducer can often be miniaturized.
5.2 Classification of Transducers

All electrical transducers are broadly classified under two categories, viz., active and passive
transducers.
 Active transducers are self generating devices, operating under energy conversion principles.
They generate an equivalent electrical output signal without any external energizing source.

 Passive transducers operate under energy controlling principles. They depend upon the change
in the electrical parameter (resistance, capacitance, or inductance) whose excitation or operation
requires secondary electrical energy form an external source.
The various transduction principles under which the electrical transducers operate are given in
Table 5.2.
Table 5.2: Classification of Electrical Transducers
Active Passive Transducers
Transducers
Thermoelectric Resistive
Piezoelectric Inductive
Photovoltaic Capacitive
Photoconductive
Piezoresistive
Magnetostrictive Magnetoresistive
Electrokinetic Thermoresistive
Electrodynamic Elastoresistive
Electromagnetic Hall effect
Pyroelectric Synchro
Galvanic Gyro
Radio-active
absorption
Ionic conduction
5.3 Force Deflection Transducers

Elastic transducers (Force-Deflection) provide an indication of the magnitude of force through
displacement measurements. Elastic elements may be subjected to one or combination of three
actions compression, tension and torsion. Elastic elements are frequently used for the measurement
of force because of their large range, continuous monitoring, ease of operation and ruggedness.
They are used for both dynamic and static force measurements. The commonly used elastic
transducers are Bourdan tube, Bellows, Diaphragm, spring, proving ring and torsion bar.
Figure 5.2: a) Bourdon tube and b) bellows

5.4 Variable Resistance and Sliding Contact Devices
Methods which involve the measurement of change in resistance are preferred to those employing
other principles because both AC as well as DC excitations are suitable for measurements. The
resistance of an electrical conductor is expressed by a simple equation:
L
R 
A
Any method of varying one of the quantities involved in the above relationship can be the design
basis of an electrical resistive transducer. There are a number of ways in which resistance can be
changed by a physical phenomenon.
1. Mechanically Varied Resistance (Length of Resistor)
2. Resistivity Change By Thermal Conditions Change
3. Resistance Change Due to Strain
Resistive Potentiometer
Sliding contact resistive transducers convert a mechanical displacement input into an electrical
output, either voltage or current. Basically, a resistive potentiometer consists of a resistance
element provided with a movable contact. The contact motion may be translation, rotation or a
combination of the two (Helical motion). The resistance element is excited with either DC or AC
voltage, and the output voltage is (ideally) a linear function of the input displacement. Resistance
elements in common use may be classified as wire-wound, conductive plastic, hybrid or cermet.
Figure 5.3: Circuit diagram for potentiometer

The potentiometer can be used as a voltage divider to obtain a manually adjustable output voltage
at the slider (wiper) from a fixed input voltage applied across the two ends of the potentiometer.
This is their most common use.
The voltage across RL can be calculated by:
If RL is large compared to the other resistances (like the input to an operational amplifier), the
output voltage can be approximated by the simpler equation:
Input output relation for the realistic circuit is

VL 1

VS 1 / xi xt   R2 ( R1  R 2) 1  xi xt 
which becomes ideal (R2/(R1+R2) = 0 for an open circuit) conditions
VL x
 i
VS xt
Thus for NO LOADING the input output curve is a straight line.
To achieve good linearity for a given meter of a given resistance RM, a potentiometer of sufficiently
low resistance relative to RM should be chosen.
The resolution of potentiometers is strongly influenced by the construction of the resistance
element. Other factors that should be considered during the selection of potentiometers include:
temperatures, shock and vibration, humidity, and altitude. These may act as modifying or/and
interfering inputs so as seriously to degrade instrument performance.
5.5 Resistance Strain Gauge

As described previously, the resistance of an electrical conductor with a uniform cross-section area
A and length L and resistivity ρ is given by
L
R 
A
When the conductor is stretched or compressed, its resistance changes. This change in resistance is
taken as output signal. In practice, the resistance element is cemented to the surface of the member
to be strained. When the stretching or compressing force is applied, the length and area of the
resistance element will change i.e. its resistance will change. This type of sensor is used for
measuring force and/or pressure. Resistance strain gage is described in detail in the following
chapter.
5.6 Thermistors and Thermocouples

These sensors are used for measuring temperature.
Thermistors are made of semiconductor materials which include oxides of cobalt, manganese,
nickel etc. These sensors exhibit very large changes in resistance with temperature and therefore,
they can be fabricated in the form of very small bends.
The resistance-temperature relation for thermistors is given by
Where, R = resistance at temperature T,

RRef = resistance at reference temperature
T and TRef = absolute temperature, K
β = constant, characteristics of material, K

A thermocouple is a temperature measuring device whose operation depends on Seebeck effect.
The Seebeck effect states that when two dissimilar materials are brought into contact an emf exists
in the circuit which is a function of temperature at two junctions.
Because of small size, reliability and wide range of usefulness, thermocouples are widely used for
temperature measurement.
Figure 5.4: A thermocouple measuring circuit
The output voltage from the thermocouple is given by:

E0 = K (T1-T2)
Where, K = sensitivity of material combination μV/0C
T1 and T2 = temperature at junctions 1 and 2, 0C
5.7 Variable Inductance Transducers

Inductance is a measure that relates electrical flux to current. Inductance reactance is a measure of
the inductive effect and can be expressed as:
X = 2pfL
Where, X is the inductive reactance in ohms,
f is the frequency of the applied voltage in Hz and
L is the inductance in henries.
The inductance of a circuit is influenced by a number of factors, including:
1) The number of turns in a coil
2) The coil size
3) The permeability of the flux path
As a result of a mechanical displacement the permeability of the flux path is altered and a resulting
change in the inductance of the system occurs. Inductance is monitored through the resonant
frequency of the inductance coils to an applied voltage. As inductance changes, the resonant
frequency of the coils also changes. Electronic circuits that convert frequency to voltage are used to
gain a voltage output to inductive transducers.
Inductive transducers can be classified as follows:
1) Variable self inductance: single coil, two coil
2) Variable mutual inductance: simple two coil, three coil
3) Variable reluctance: moving iron, moving coil, moving magnet

Single coil self-inductance
In this device, the change in armature position changes the inductance of coil which is measured by
suitable circuitry indication of the value of input.
Figure 5.6: Single coil self-inductance device

Two coil self inductance
This is actually a device with one coil with a center tap. The movable magnetic core (iron core)
provides the mechanical input. The two coils usually form the two arms of a bridge which is
excited with alternating current. As the core moves, the impedance (or inductance) of coil changes
and the bridge voltage is unbalanced which is proportional to input.
Figure 5.7: Two coil self-inductance device

Mutual Inductance
In this device, the change in armature position changes inductance in the coils and causes changes
of output voltage.
Figure 5.8: Mutual inductance transducer

Differential Transformer
The linear variable differential transformer is a mechanical displacement transducer. It gives an a.c.
voltage output proportional to the distance of the transformer core to the windings. The LVDT is a
mutual-inductance device with three coils and a core. (Figure 10) An external a.c. power source
energizes the central coil and the two phase opposite end coils are used as pickup coils. The output

amplitude and phase are dependent on the relative positions between the two pickup coils and the
power coil. Theoretically there is a null or zero position between the two end coils, although in
practice this is difficult to obtain perfectly.
A typical representation of a core displacement to output voltage is shown in figure below. The
output voltage on either side of the null position is approximately proportional to the core
displacement. The phase shift that occurs on passing through the null position can be sensed by a
phase sensitive demodulator and used to detect the side that the output voltage is from.
The typical range for LVDT sensitivity is 0.4 - 2.0 mV/V. 10-3cm. LVDT are typically used in
force, displacement and pressure measurement. They offer the advantages of being relatively
insensitive to temperature changes, and providing high outputs without intermediate amplification.
The appreciable mass of the core is a disadvantage in the area of dynamic measurements.
Figure 5.9: Differential transformer schematic arrangement and its characteristics
5.8 Variable Reluctance Transducers

In transducer practice, some form of inductance device incorporating a permanent magnet is called
variable reluctance transducer. These devices are used for dynamic applications only where the flux
lines supplied by the magnet are cut by turns of coil. Some means for providing relative motion is
incorporated into the device. In its simplest form, the variable reluctance device consists simply a
coil wound on a permanent magnet core. The variation of air gap between the magnet and moving
member cause change in magnetic flux which develop voltage in the coil.

Figure 5.10: A simple variable reluctance pickup
5.9 Capacitive Transducers
The principle of operation of capacitive transducers is based upon the familiar equation for
capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor.
Capacitance (C) = εA/x = εrεoA/x
Where, A = overlapping area of plates, m2
x = distance between two plates, m
ε = εrεo = permittivity of medium, F/m
The capacitance transducer work on the principle of change of capacitance which may be caused by
1. Change in overlapping area, A
2. Change in the distance, x
3. Change in dielectric constant, ε
Figure 5.11: Variation in distance and overlapping area in capacitor

The most commonly employed method of changing capacitance is changing gap thickness and the
less frequently used method is changing overlapping area.
For capacitive transducer with variable air gap, ε =1, and the sensitivity of capacitance in plate
separation may be determined as,
dC/dx = -kA/x2
or, dC = -C/x
Therefore, dC/C = -dx/x
When the capacitor plates are stationary with a separation x0, no current flows and eo = 0. If there is
a relative displacement x1 from the x0 position, a voltage e0 is produced which is related to x1 by,
x0
D  = KD
x1 D  1

5.10 Piezoelectric Transducers
A piezoelectric transducers is one in which an electric potential appears across certain surfaces if
the dimensions of the crystal of the crystal are changed by the application of a mechanical force.
The potential is produced by the displacement of charges. The effect is reversible and known as
piezoelectric effect. Piezoelectric materials such as single crystal quartz or polycrystalline barium
titanate, contain molecules with asymmetrical charge distributions. When pressure is applied, the
crystal deforms and there is a relative displacement of positive and negative charges within the
crystal.
Figure 5.12: Piezoelectric Transducer

This displacement of internal charges produces external charges of opposite sign on two surfaces of
the crystal which is determined as,
q = E0C where, C = capacitance of piezoelectric crystal and
E0 = output voltage
The surface charge q is related to the applied pressure P by equation,
q = SqAP where, Sq = charge sensitivity of the piezoelectric crystal
A = area of the electrode
5.11 Photoelectric Transducers

These types of transducers are used in certain applications when contact cannot be made with the
test specimen. Photoelectric sensors are used to monitor changes in light intensity which can be
related to the quantity being measured. Three different types of photoelectric detectors are used to
convert a radiation input to a voltage output. These include photo emissive cells, photo conductive
cells and photovoltaic cells.
The photo emissive cell contains a cathode C and an anode A mounted in a vacuum tube. The
radiation impinging on the cathode material frees electrons that flow to anode to produce an electric
current I which is proportional to illumination ψ imposed on the cathode.
I= Sψ where S= sensitivity of photoelectric cell.
Figure 5.13: Schematic of Photo emissive cell

The photo conductive cells are fabricated from semiconductor materials such as cadmium sulfide
(CdS) or cadmium selenide (CdSe) which exhibit a strong photoconductive response. The electrical
resistivity of these materials decreases when they are exposed to light.
Figure 5.14: Schematic of Photo conductive cell
The photovoltaic cells commonly used are P-N type diffused-silicon guard- ring photodiodes.
When the active area of a photodiode is illuminated and a connection is made between P and N
regions, current flows during the period of illumination. This phenomenon is known as
photovoltaic effect.
Figure 5.15: Working of Photovoltaic cell

CHAPTER 6
STRAIN GAGES
6.1 Introduction to Strain Measurement
Strain gage is one of the most popular types of transducer. It has got a wide range of applications. It
can be used for measurement of force, torque, pressure, acceleration and many other parameters.
The basic principle of operation of a strain gage is simple: when strain is applied to a thin metallic
wire, its dimension changes, thus changing the resistance of the wire.
Gage Factor
Let us consider a long straight metallic wire of length l circular cross section with diameter d (fig.).
When this wire is subjected to a force applied at the two ends, a strain will be generated and as a
result, the dimension will change (l changing to l+Δ l, d changing to d+Δd and A changing to
A+ΔA). For the time being, we are considering that all the changes are in positive direction. Now
the resistance of the wire:
ρ
R= , where ρ is the resistivity.
From the above expression, the change in resistance due to strain:
ΔR= ) Δl + ( ) ΔA + ( Δ
= Δl - 2 ΔA + Δ
= R -R +R
Or, = - + Figure 6.1: elongation of wire
Now, for a circular cross section, A= ; from which ΔA = Δd.

Alternatively,
=2
Hence,
= -2 +
Now, the Poisson’s Ratio is defined as:

υ=- =-
The Poisson’s Ratio is the property of the material, and does not depend on the dimension. So, it
can be rewritten as:
= (1 + 2 υ) +
Hence,
=1+2υ+

The last term in the right hand side of the above expression, represents the change in resistivity of
the material due to applied strain that occurs due to the piezo-resistance property of the material. In
fact, all the elements in the right hand side of the above equation are independent of the geometry
of the wire, subjected to strain, but rather depend on the material property of the wire.
Due to this reason, a term Gage Factor is used to characterize the performance of a strain gage.
The Gage Factor is defined as:
G= =1+2υ+
For normal metals the Poisson’s ratio υ varies in the range:

0.3 ≤ υ ≤ 0.6 ,
while the piezo-resistance coefficient varies in the range:
0.2 ≤ ≤ 0.6
Thus, the Gage Factor of metallic strain gages varies in the range 1.8 to 2.6. However, the
semiconductor type strain gages have a very large Gage Factor, in the range of 100-150. This is
attained due to dominant piezo-resistance property of semiconductors. The commercially available
strain gages have certain fixed resistance values, such as, 120Ω, 350 Ω, 1000 Ω, etc. The
manufacturer also specifies the Gage Factor and the maximum gage current to avoid self-heating
(normally in the range 15 mA to 100 mA).
The choice of material for a metallic strain gage should depend on several factors. The material
should have low temperature coefficient of resistance. It should also have low coefficient for
thermal expansion. Judging from all these factors, only few alloys qualify for a commercial
metallic strain gage. They are:
Advance (55% Cu, 45% Ni): Gage Factor between 2.0 to 2.2
Nichrome (80% Ni, 20% Co): Gage Factor between 2.2 to 2.5
Apart from these two, Isoelastic -another trademarked alloy with Gage Factor around 3.5 is also in
use. Semiconductor type strain gages, though having large Gage Factor, find limited use, because
of their high sensitivity and nonlinear characteristics.
6.2 Electrical type strain gauge: Unbonded and Bonded
6.2.1 Unbonded Strain Gauges

These strain gauges are not directly bonded (that is, pasted) onto the surface of the structure under
study. Hence they are termed as unbounded strain gauges. The unbounded strain gauge is normally
used for measuring strain (or displacement) between a fixed and a moving structure. Two frames P
and Q carrying rigidly fixed insulated pins as shown in diagram. These two frames can move
relative with respect to each other and they are held together by a spring loaded mechanism. A fine
wire resistance strain gauge is stretched around the insulated pins. The strain gauge is connected to
a wheat stone bridge.

When a force is applied on the structure under study
(frames P & Q), frames P moves relative to frame
Q, and due to this strain gauge will change in length
and cross section. That is, the strain gauge is
strained. This strain changes the resistance of
the strain gauge and this change in resistance of the
strain gauge is measured using a wheat stone
bridge. This change in resistance when calibrated
becomes a measure of the applied force and change
in dimensions of the structure under study.
It is used in force, pressure and acceleration
measurement. The range of this gauge is +/- 0.15%
strain & has very high accuracy but occupies more
space. Figure 6.2: Unbonded Strain Gauge
6.2.2 Bonded strain gauge

In the bonded strain gage, the element is fixed on a backing material, which is permanently fixed
over a structure, whose strain has to be measured, with adhesive. Most commonly used bonded
strain gages are metal foil type. The metal foil type strain gage is manufactured by photo-etching
technique. Here the thin strips of the foil are the active elements of the strain gage, while the thick
ones are for providing electrical connections. Because of large area of the thick portion, their
resistance is small and they do not contribute to any change in resistance due to strain, but increase
the heat dissipation area. Also it is easier to connect the lead wires with the strain gage.
The backing materials normally used is impregnated paper, fiber glass, etc. The bonding material
used for fixing the strain gage permanently to the structure should also be non-hygroscopic. Epoxy
and Cellulose are the bonding materials normally used.
Figure 6.3: Bonded Strain Gauge
Required characteristics for strain measuring device

An electrical strain gage meets all the required characteristics for strain measuring device which are
as follows

1. Calibration constant for the gage should be stable with respect to both temperature and time
2. The gage should be capable of measuring ±1μm/m over a range of ±5% strain (50000μm/m)
3. The gage length and width should be small so that the measurement approximates strain at a
point.
4. The inertia of gage should be minimal to permit the recording of high frequency dynamic
strain.
5. The input output relationship should be linear over the entire range of gage.
6. The gage and associated electronics should be economical.
7. Installation and read-out of the gage should require minimal skills and understanding.
6.3 The Metallic Resistance Strain Gage: Characteristics, Selection and Installation
The characteristic of a resistance strain gage is given by its gage factor which is given by:
Gage factor = 1+ 2v +
If gage factor is known, measurement of dR/R allows measurement of dL/L which is strain.
Selection and instillation of strain gage is influenced by following factors:
1. Grid materials and construction
2. Backing material
3. Bonding material
4. Gage protection
5. Gage configuration
Selection of grid material is based on compromise of following main desirable factors:
1. High gage factors
2. High resistivity
3. Low temperature sensitivity
4. High electrical sensitivity
5. High endurance limit
6. Low hysteresis
Most commercial gages are made of constantan or iso-elastic. Constantan provides low temperature
coefficient along with reasonable gage factor. Iso-elastic gage are temperature sensitive but have
high output and therefore are used for dynamic application.
The strain gage grid is normally supported on some form of backing material. It provides insulation
between grid and tested material and makes easy to handle the un-mounted gage. The main
desirable properties for backing materials are:
1. Minimum thickness consistent with other factors
2. High mechanical strength
3. High dielectric strength
4. Minimum temperature restrictions
5. Good adherence to cements used
6. Non hygroscopic characteristics
Common backing materials are thin paper, phenol impregnated paper, epoxy type plastic films and
epoxy impregnated fiber glass.

The adhesives used to cement or attach the gage to test item fall into one of following categories:
cellulose, phenolic epoxy, cyanoacrylate or ceramic. The main desirable characteristics of adhesive
are:
1. High mechanical strength
2. High creep resistance
3. High dielectric strength
4. Minimum temperature restrictions
5. Good adherence
6. Minimum moisture attractions
7. Ease of application
8. The capacity to set up fast
After installing the gage, it must be protected from ambient conditions such as mechanical abuse,
moisture, oil, dust and dirt. Usually suppliers provide materials for this propose such as petroleum
waxes, silicon resins epoxy preparations and rubberized brushing compounds.
Gages may have one or more elements. For uniaxial stress, single element gage is used. The two-
element rosette is applied to the biaxial condition when either the principle axes or the axes of
interest are known and the three element rosette is applied when a biaxial stress condition is
completely unknown.
Selection of gage size depends on factors like axial and transverse strain gradients and power
dissipation. It is desirable to minimize gage dimension in the direction of greatest strain.
Resistance strain gages are passive transducers which require external excitation. The energizing
current causes heating that must be dissipated. Foil gages bonded to metal can safely handle about
5W/m2. An approximate maximum current for wire gage is 35mA. It is advantageous to use the
largest gage compatible with strain conditions being measured (which helps to dissipate more heat).
Larger gages are also easier to install and have better fatigue life.
6.4 Strain gage ballast and bridge circuits

The figure shows a simple ballast circuit where R2 (= Rb) is ballast resistance (ohm) and R1 (= Rg)
is gage resistance (ohm). V (= ei) and E (= eo) are input and output voltage. We know,
Gage factor (F) = = ε
Or, ε=
For the circuit shown below,
e0 = ei
And
de0 =ei =ei
Or, Δe0 =ei F. ε

Figure 6.4: Strain gage ballast circuit
This type of circuit cannot be used for static strain measurement. In order to measure dynamic
strain a capacitor is inserted. In an output lead which blocks the d.c. exciting voltage but allows the
variable component to pass. Since only dynamic strain is measured with this type of arrangement,
temperature compensation is often of no importance.

The strain gage bridge circuits
The resistance bridge circuits are convenient for use with strain gages for two reasons:
1. Null adjusting is easy
2. Temperature effect can be reduced or eliminated easily
The strain gage bridge circuits can be of three types
1. Quarter Bridge 2. Half Bridge
3. Full Bridge
The quarter bridge contains only one strain gage and the remaining elements are fixed resistors as
shown in figure below. Here, R1= strain gage and R2, R3, R4 = fixed resistors. If R1=R2=R3=R4 = R
and the bridge is voltage sensitive, then
Δ Δ
=
Δ
We know
Δ
ε= or ΔR1 = FR ε
Then
ε
Δe0 = ei ε
Usually the second term in the denominator is
negligible. Then we can write,
Δe0 = (ei. F ε)/4 Figure 6.5: A quarter bridge
The half bridge contains two strain gages in the bridge, the other remaining elements being fixed
resistors. We know that for a symmetrical beam section the tensile and compressive strains are
equal except for the sign. Therefore one of the two strain gages of a half bridge is bonded to tension
side and the other one to compression side. The resistance change due to strain will be equal but of
opposite sign and the bridge output will be double compared to Quarter Bridge which is given by:
Δe0 = (ei. F ε)/2
All the elements in full bridge are strain gages. In this case, the gages 1 and 4 are mounted to
record tension and 2 and 3 to record compression or vice-versa as shown in figure. This type of
bridge gives the output which is four times the output of Quarter Bridge and is given by:
Δe0 = ei F ε
Figure 6.6: a) half bridge and b) full bridge

6.5 Constant Current and Voltage Strain Gage Circuit
Resistance can be measured by exciting the bridge with either a constant voltage or a constant
current source. Because R = V/I, if either V or I is held constant, the other will vary with the
resistance. Both methods can be used.
While there is no theoretical advantage to using a constant current as compared to a constant
voltage, in some cases the bridge output will be more linear in a constant current system. Also, if a
constant current source is used, it eliminates the need to sense the voltage at the bridge; therefore,
only two wires need to be connected to the strain gage element.
The constant current circuit is most effective when dynamic strain is being measured. This is
because, if a dynamic force is causing a change in the resistance of the strain gage (Rg), one would
measure the time varying component of the output (VOUT), whereas slowly changing effects such as
changes in lead resistance due to temperature variations would be rejected. Using this
configuration, temperature drifts become nearly negligible.
As the gage resistance changes due to strain, the voltage across the gage will change, hence the
output will be,
eo = i R and Δ eo = i ΔR
Δ Δ
Or, =
Δ
i.e. ε = Δ
Figure 6.7: A constant current circuit

Constant voltage power supply is usually used in bridges which have been already discussed in
previous session.
6.6 Semiconductor or Piezo-resistive Gauges

The piezo-resistive effect is defined as the change in resistance of a material due to an applied
stress and this term is used commonly in connection with semiconducting materials. This type of
strain gage is made from single crystals of heavily doped (impurities added) silicon. The typical
cross-section is 0.125 to 0.0125 mm and lengths may range from 1.25 to 12 mm. The sensitive
elements may be backed or unbacked. The same types of backing, bonding materials and mounting
techniques used for metallic gages are used for semiconductor gages. This type of strain gages have
very high gage factor, around 130 compared to 2 to 3.5 for metallic gages. The disadvantages of
this type are
1. The output is nonlinear with strain as shown in
figure below
2. Strain sensitivity is temperature dependent
3. Fragile than metallic gages
4. Strain range is limited to 10000μs compared to
100000μs for metallic gages
5. Expensive than metallic gages
6. Because of high sensitivity, non-linearity of
Wheatstone bridge cannot be ignored which may
require special instrumentation.
The gage behavior is given by: Figure 6.8: Semiconductor gauge behavior
Δ 2 2
= ( ) F0 ε + ( ) co ε
Where

ΔRo = change in gage resistance, (ohm)
Ro = resistance on unstrained gage (ohm) at To (k) To = reference temperature (K)
T = working temperature (K) Fo = gage factor for unbacked gage
co= constant for a particular gage Fo and co are supplied by manufacturer
6.7 Orientation of gages in Wheatstone bridge

Temperature compensation
The resistive type strain gages are normally quite sensitive to temperature. Both the differential
expansion between the grid and the tested material and the temperature coefficient of the resistivity
of the grid material contribute to the problem. This problem is overcome by:
1. Adjacent arm balancing
2. Self temperature compensation
1. Adjacent arm balancing
For the bridge configuration shown below, the balance is obtained when R1/R2 = R3/R4. If R1=R2
and are mounted on similar material, then the resistance change due to temperature change will be
equal on both gages.
i.e. (R1+ΔR)/ (R2+ΔR) = R3/R4
This means, the bridge remains balanced and the output is unaffected by the change in temperature.
2. Self compensation
This is done in two ways. The first way is to make the grid insensitive to temperature by
manipulation of alloy and processing. The other way is to use dual element gages connected in
series in one assembly and having different temperature characteristics. These two elements are
selected in such a way that the net temperature induced strain is minimized when the gage is
mounted on a test specimen.
The following figures show orientation of strain gages in a Wheatstone bridge for temperature
compensation and sensitivity to bending and shear stresses.
Table 6.1: Bridge Configurations for Uniaxial Members
No. K Configuration Notes
1
Must use dummy gage in an adjacent
A-1 1 arm (2 or 4) to achieve temperature
compensation
1 Rejects bending strain but not
temperature compensated; must add
A-2 2
dummy gages in arms 2 & 4 to
3 compensate for temperature.
1
Temperature compensated but sensitive
A-3 (1+v) to bending strains
2
1
2 Best: compensates for temperature
A-4 2(1+v) and rejects bending strain.
3
4

Table 6.2: Bridge Configurations for Torsion Members
No. K Configuration Notes

Half Bridge: Gages at ±45˚ to
centerline sense principal strains which
are equal & opposite for pure torsion;
T-1 2
bending or axial force induces equal
2 1 strains and is rejected; arms are
temperature compensated.
3 4 Best: full-bridge version of T-1; rejects

axial and bending strain and is
T-2 4 temperature compensated.
2
1
Table 6.3: Bridge Configurations for Flexural Members
Notes
No. K
Configuration
Also responds equally to axial strains;
1
must use dummy gage in an adjacent
F-1 1 arm (2 or 4) to achieve temperature
compensation
Half-bridge; rejects axial strain and is

1
temperature compensated; dummy
F-2 2 resistors in arms 3 & 4 can be in strain
indicator.
2
1
2
Best: Max sensitivity to bending; rejects
F-3 4 axial strains; temperature compensated.
3
4
1 Adequate, but not as good as F-3;

2
compensates for temperature and
F-4 2(1+v)
rejects axial strain.
4
3

CHAPTER 7
COMMON MECHANICAL MEASUREMENT SYSTEM AND TRANSDUCERS
7.1 Force, Moment and Torque Measurement
There are two basic methods of measuring force and weight:
 Direct comparison, and
 Indirect comparison through the use of calibrated d transducers.
For direct comparison, equal arm analytical balance is used which employs null balance technique.
This type of balance neither amplifies nor attenuates the force. In case of platform scale, the force
is attenuated through a system of leaver to that a smaller weight may be used to balance the
unknown, with the variable in his case being the magnitude of attenuation. This method required
calibration of the system.
7.1.1 Mechanical Weighing systems

The mechanical weighing systems most frequently encountered are:
 Equal arm analytical balance
 Unequal arm balance
 Multilever system for weighing
 Pendulum scale.
The equal arm analytical balance operates on the principle of moment comparison. The moment
produced by the unknown weight or force is compared with that produced by a known value. When
null balance is obtained, the two weights/forces are equal .Figure below illustrates equal arm
analytical balance.
The unequal arm balance employed fixed pivot points and movable balance weights as shown in
figure below. This type of balance is used for weighing heavier objects. Usually the load
(unknown) is put on the shorter arm and the counter weight (known) is put on the longer arm. It
also works on the principle of moment comparison but it utilizes mechanical advantages due to
unequal arms and smaller counter weights can be used to heavier unknown weights.
m1 xd1= m2 x d2
m2= m1 = constant x d1
Figure 7.1: a) equal arm balance Figure 7.1: b) unequal arm balance

When large weights are to be measured, neither the equal arm nor the unequal arm balance is
adequate. In such cases multiple-lever system as shown in figure below are often used. With such
systems, large weights W may be measured in terms of much smaller weights Wp and Ws is called
poise weight and Ws is called pan weight.
The pendulum scale shown in figure below is also a moment comparison device of multiple lever
type. The weight or force to be measured is applied to the load rod. As the load is applied, the
sectors rotate about point A, moving the counterweights outward. The movement increases the
counterweight effect moment until the load and balance are equalized. Motion of equalizer bar is
magnified and transmitted to the indicator pointer.
Figure 7.1: c) multilever balance Figure 7.1: d) pendulum scale
7.1.2 Elastic Transducers

These devices measure the force by applying it to an elastic member and then measuring the elastic
deformation or deflection. Within the elastic limit of the materials, the deflection of the element is
proportional to the force.
Figure 7.2: Different types of Elastic Transducers

Elastic elements when subjected to pressure get deformed. The deformation when measured gives
an indication of the pressure. These elements may be in the form of diaphragms, capsules, bellows,
Bourdon, or helical tubes. The deformation may be measured by mechanical or electrical means.
These devices are convenient to use and can cover a wide range of pressure depending upon the
design of the elastic elements.
7.1.3 Strain Gage Load Cells

A Load cell is a transducer that is used to convert a force into an electrical signal. This conversion
is indirect and happens in two stages. Through a mechanical arrangement, the force being sensed
deforms a strain gauge. The strain gauge measures the deformation (strain) as an electrical signal,
because the strain changes the effective electrical resistance of the wire. A load cell usually consists
of four strain gauges in a Wheatstone bridge configuration. Load cells of one strain gauge (Quarter
Bridge) or two strain gauges (half bridge) are also available. The electrical signal output is typically
in the order of a few mill volts and requires amplification by an instrumentation amplifier before it
can be used. The output of the transducer can be scaled to calculate the force applied to the
transducer.
Basic Principle
When steel cylinder is subjected to a force, it
tends to change in dimension. On this cylinder, if
the strain gauges are bonded, the strain gauge
also is stretched or compressed, causing a change
in its length and diameter. This change in
dimension of the strain gauge causes its
resistance to change. This change in resistance or
output voltage of the strain gauge becomes a
measure of applied force.
Construction of strain gauge Load cell
The main parts of the strain gauge load cell are as
follows. They are a cylinder made up of steel on
which four identical strain gauge are mounted
and out of four strain gauges, two of them (R1
and R4) are mounted along the direction of the
applied load(vertical gauges). The other two
strain gauges (R2 and R3 Horizontal gauges) are
mounted circumferentially at right angles to
gauges R1 andR4. Figure 7.3 a): Construction of Strain Gauge Load Cell
Operation of strain gauge Load cell

Let study the operation in two cases
Case 1
When there is no load (force) on the steel cylinder, all
the four gauges will have the same resistance. As the
terminals N and P are at the same potential, the wheat
stone bridge is balanced and hence the output voltage
will be zero. Figure 7.2 b): Wheatstone bridge

Case 2
Now the load (force) to be measured (say compression force) is applied on the steel cylinder. Due
to this, the vertical gauges R1 and R4 will undergo compression and hence there will be a decrease
in resistance. At the same time, the horizontal gauges R2 and R3 will undergo tension and there
will be an increase in resistance. Thus when strained, the resistance of the various gauges change.
Now the terminal N and P will be at different potential and the change in output voltage due to the
applied load (force) becomes a measure of the applied load force when calibrated.
Strain gauge load cells are used when the load is not steady. Strain gauge load cells are used in
vehicle weigh bridges, and tool force dynamometers.
7.1.4 Piezoelectric Load Cells

Unlike strain gages that can measure static forces, piezoelectric force sensors are mostly used for
dynamic- force measurements such as oscillation, impact, or high-speed compression or tension.
Any force applied to the piezoelectric sensing element produces a separation of charges within the
atomic structure of the material, generating an electrostatic output voltage. The polarity of the
voltage generated depends on the atomic structure of the material and the direction in which the
force is applied.
When a force is applied to the impact cap,
the quartz elements generate an output
voltage which can be routed directly to a
charge amplifier or converted to a low-
impedance signal within the sensor. The use
of the direct sensor output demands that any
connector, cable, and charge amplifier input
must maintain a high insulation resistance
on the order of >10≠″ Ω.
Low-impedance quartz sensors have an
internal MOSFET amplifier. Its output is a
low-impedance voltage signal that uses
standard cabling. However, force sensors
with internal amplifiers do require external
power to operate the amp. Figure 7.3: Piezoelectric Load Cell
7.1.5 Hydraulic and Pneumatic Systems
Hydraulic Load Cell

When a force is applied on a liquid medium
contained in a confined space, the pressure
of the liquid increases. This increase in
pressure of the liquid is proportional to the
applied force. Hence a measure of the
increase in pressure of the liquid becomes a
measure of the applied force when
calibrated.
Figure 7.4: Hydaulic Load Cell

Description
The main parts of a hydraulic load cell are as follows. A diaphragm, a piston with a loading
platform (as shown in figure) placed on top of the diaphragm.
A liquid medium which is under a pre-loaded pressure is on the other side of the diaphragm. A
pressure gauge (bourdon tube type) connected to the liquid medium.
Operation
The force to be measured is applied to the piston. The applied force moves the piston downwards
and deflects the diaphragm and this deflection of the diaphragm increases the pressure in the liquid
medium (oil). This increase in pressure of the liquid medium is proportional to the applied force.
The increase in pressure is measured by the pressure gauge which is connected to the liquid
medium. The pressure is calibrated in force units and hence the indication in the pressure gauge
becomes a measure of the force applied on the piston.
As the hydraulic load cell is sensitive to pressure changes, the load cell should be adjusted to zero
setting before using it to measure force. This hydraulic load cell have an accuracy of the order of
0.1 percent of its scale and can measure loads up to 2.5*10^5 Kgf. The resolution is about 0.02
percent.
Pneumatic Load Cell

If a force is applied to one side of a
diaphragm and an air pressure is applied
to the other side, some particular value of
pressure will be necessary to exactly
balance the force. This pressure is
proportional to the applied force.
Description
The main parts of a pneumatic load cell
are as follows: A corrugated diaphragm
with its top surface attached with
arrangements to apply force. An air
supply regulator, nozzle and a pressure
gauge arranged as shown in figure. A
flapper arranged above the nozzle as
shown in figure. Figure 7.5: Pneumatic Load Cell
Operation
The force to be measured is applied to the top side of the diaphragm. Due to this force, the
diaphragm deflects and causes the flapper to shut-off the nozzle opening. Now an air supply is
provided at the bottom of the diaphragm. As the flapper closes the nozzle opening, a back pressure
results underneath the diagram. This back pressure acts on the diaphragm producing an upward
force. Air pressure is regulated until the diaphragm returns to the pre-loaded position which is
indicated by air which comes out of the nozzle. At this stage, the corresponding pressure indicated
by the pressure gauge becomes a measure of the applied force when calibrated.
The pneumatic load cell can measure loads up to 2.5*103 Kgf. The accuracy of this system is 0.5
percent of the full scale.

7.1.6 Dynamometers
Torque measurement is necessary to determine the mechanical power developed or required by the
machine. The devices used for torque measurement are called dynamometers. There are three basic
types of dynamometers.
1) Absorption dynamometers – dissipate mechanical energy as torque is measured, hence they
are useful for measuring torque developed by engines or electric motors.
2) Drying dynamometers – measure torque and supply energy to tested device. These are
useful in determining performance characteristics of compressors and pumps.
3) Transmission dynamometers – are passive devices used for sensing torque at a certain
location within a machine or between machines. These are sometimes also called torque
meters.
Figure below show a form of prony brakes. This
is absorption type dynamometer which
dissipates input mechanical energy in the form of
heat by means of dry friction. Another similar
device is water brake which dissipates energy by
means of fluid friction.
Torque (T) is determined as T = F.r
Where, F = force, r = radius
If the angular speed of driver is known, then
the power (P) will be:
P = 2 Tx (rps) watts Figure 7.6: Prony Brake
The most versatile dynamometer is the d-c dynamometer. This type of machine is usable both as
absorption and as a driving dynamometer in capacities to 5000 hp. When used as an absorption
dynamometer it performs as a d-c generator and the input mechanical energy is converted to
electrical energy, which is dissipated in resistance racks. As a driving dynamometer, the device is
used as d-c motor, which presents a problem in certain instances of obtaining an adequate source of
d-c power for this purpose. Use of either an a-c motor driven d-c generator set or a rectified source
is required. Ease of control and good performance at low speeds are features of this type of
machine.
Figure 7.7: A d-c dynamometer

The most common forms of transmission dynamometers are based on calibrated measurement of
unit or total strains in elastic load carrying members. A popular dynamometer of the elastic type
employs bonded strain gages applied to a section of a torque transmitting shaft. Such a
dynamometer is often referred to as a torque meter. This type of dynamometer is relatively
expensive and cannot be considered a general purpose instrument.
Figure 7.8: Transmission dynamometer
7.1.7 Combined force and moment measurement

In certain situations, combined measurement of force and moment becomes necessary such as in
case of a wind tunnel model or in power piping system (in which pressure and thermal expansions
take place simultaneously). In such situations, determination of three forces and three moment
components are referred to a set of orthogonal
axes x, y, and z.
One of the methods employs a cross shaped
resolver arranged as shown in figure below.
Forces required to maintain equilibrium are
applied at the cross extremities. These forces
may be designated Fx1, Fx2, Fy1, Fy2 and Fz1, Fz2.
Inspection shows that
Rx = Fx1 + Fx2
Ry = Fy1 + Fy2
Rz = Fz1 + Fz2
Figure 7.9: Cross type Resolver for Combined force and moment measurement

And also that
Mz = d (Fz1- Fz2)
My = d (Fx1 – Fx2)
Mz = d (Fy1 – Fy2
Actual measurement of the forces may be made by the use of any of the various force transducers.
Usually, smaller cantilever beams with resistance type strain gages are used. Forces between the
resolver and the beams may be transmitted by elastic tapes thereby permitting freedom of
movement in all but the load measuring direction.
7.2 Pressure Measurement

In general, pressure is represented as force per unit area. The measurement of pressure is one of the
most important measurements, as it is used in almost all industries. Some important applications of
pressure measurement are listed.
1. The pressure of steam in a boiler is measured for ensuring safe operating condition of the
boiler.
2. Pressure measurement is done in continuous processing industries such as manufacturing and
chemical industries.
3. Pressure measurement helps in determining the liquid level in tanks and containers.
4. Pressure measurement helps in determining the density of liquids.
5. In many flow meter (such as venturimeter, orifice meter, flow nozzle, etc.,) pressure
measurement serves as an indication of flow rate.
6. Measurement of pressure change becomes an indication of temperature (as used in pressure
thermometers-fluid expansion type).
7. Apart from this, pressure measurement is also required in day-to-day situations such as
maintaining optimal pressure in tubes of vehicle tyres.
7.2.1 Static and Dynamic Pressure Measurement system

Pressure is the force exerted by a medium (fluid) on a unit area due to the interaction of fluid
particles amongst themselves. The following are the terms related to pressure namely:
Atmospheric pressure: The pressure due to air surrounding the earth’s surface is called as
atmospheric pressure.
Absolute pressure: It is known that pressure is force per unit area when the interaction of fluid
particles among themselves is zero, zero pressure intensity will occur. This is possible only when
the population of molecules is negligibly small, which is nothing but perfect vacuum. Hence the
pressure intensity measured from a state of prefect vacuum is called as absolute pressure.
Gauge Pressure: A pressure measuring instrument generally measures the difference between the
unknown pressure (p) and the atmospheric pressure (pa). When the unknown pressure (P) is greater
than the atmospheric pressure (Pa), the pressure measured by the instrument is called as the gauge
pressure.
Vacuum pressure: A Pressure measuring instrument generally measures the difference between
the unknown pressure (P) and the atmospheric pressure (Pa). When the atmospheric pressure (Pa)

is greater than the unknown pressure (P), the pressure measured by the instrument is called as the
vacuum pressure.
Figure 7.10: Diagram showing relation between static, impact and total pressure
Static Pressure: The pressure caused on the walls of the pipe due to a fluid at rest inside the pipe
or due to the flow of a fluid parallel to the walls of the pipe is called as static pressure. This static
pressure is measured by inserting a pressure measuring tube into the pipe carrying the fluid, so that
the tube is at right angle to the fluid flow path.
Total or Stagnation pressure: The pressure which is obtained by bringing the flowing fluid to rest
isentropic ally is called as total or stagnation pressure. Hence the pressure will be a sum of static
pressure and impact pressure.
Dynamic or Impact or Velocity pressure: The pressure due to fluid velocity (flow speed) is
called as impact pressure.
Impact pressure = Total pressure – static pressure.
Figure 7.11: Diagram showing relation between absolute gauge, atmospheric and vacuum
pressure

In order to measure a static pressure, usually U tube manometers are used. Such a manometer is
inexpensive, accurate and can be arranged to have high sensitivity. It is not usable for dynamic
changes but can be used for slowly changing pressures.
For dynamic pressures, some form of pressure measuring system utilizing electromechanical
method is required.
In accounting for the dynamic response of a pressure measuring system, the instrumentation and
application must be considered as a whole. The response is not determined by the isolated physical
properties of the instrument. Components alone, but must include the spring-mass-damping effects
of the pressurized media and conduction passageways.
7.2.2 Pressure Measurement Systems

1. Gravitational transducers i) A dead weight tester ii) Manometer
2. Elastic transducers i) Bourdon tube pressure gauge ii) Elastic diaphragm gauges
iii) Bellow gauges
3. Strain Gauge pressure cells i) Flattened tube pressure cell (PINCHED TUBE).
ii) Cylindrical type pressure cell.
4. McLeod vacuum gauge i) Thermal conductivity gauges.
5. Pirani gauge i) Thermocouple type conductivity gauge.
6. Ionization gauge i) Bulk modulus or electrical resistance pressure gauge.
The above instruments are used in following situations:

Type of pressure to be measured Pressure Measuring instrument to be used
Low pressure Manometer
High and medium pressure Bourdon tube pressure gauge.
Diaphragm gauge.
Bellows Gauges.
Low vacuum and ultra high vacuum McLeod vacuum gauge
Thermal conductivity gauges.
Ionisation gauges.
Very high pressures Bourdon tube pressure gauge.
Diaphragm gauge.
Bulk modulus pressure gauge.
7.2.2.1 U-tube Manometer

A well known very simple device used to measure the pressure is the U-tube manometer. The name
U-tube is derived from its shape. U-tube manometer is shown below. This manometer consists of a
U shaped tube in which the barometric liquid is filled. The manometer is used to measure the
pressure which is unknown by the balancing gravity force and acceleration due to gravity, g = 9.81
m/sec2.The manometer consists of a steel, brass and aluminum material. It has a glass tube made up

of parallax glass. The graduations are made
on the tube in terms of mm or in some
condition it is graduated in kilo Pascal.
The unknown pressure is applied in the one
arm of the tube and the mercury in the tube
or barometric liquid filled in the tube moves
in the tube or rises to the constant region Figure 7.12: U tube manometer
and then the movement is stopped. The height of the liquid is measured and noted. The pressure is
calculated by using the formula,
P1-P2 = Pm hg
The above equation is arrived by, P1 = Pt hg = P2+Pmhg
P1-P2 = hg (Pt – Pm)
P1 = applied pressure P2 = 0
Pt = specific gravity of the liquid or water g = acceleration due to gravity.
P1 – P2 is approximately equal to Pm hg.
Advantages
Simple in construction Low cost
Very accurate and sensitive It can be used to measure other process variables.
Disadvantages
Fragile in construction Very sensitive to temperature changes
Error can happen while measuring the h.
7.2.2.2 Dead Weight Tester

The dead weight tester apparatus consists
of a chamber which is filled with oil free
impurities and a piston – cylinder
combination is fitted above the chamber
as shown in diagram. The top portion of
the piston is attached with a platform to
carry weights. A plunger with a handle
has been provided to vary the pressure of
oil in the chamber. The pressure gauge to be Figure 7.13: Dead weight tester
tested is fitted at an appropriate plate. The dead weight tester is basically a pressure producing and
pressure measuring device. It is used to calibrate pressure gauges. The following procedure is
adopted for calibrating pressure gauges. Calibration of pressure gauge means introducing an

accurately known sample of pressure to the gauge under test and then observing the response of the
gauge. In order to create this accurately known pressure, the following steps are followed.
The valve of the apparatus is closed. A known weight is placed on the platform. Now by operating
the plunger, fluid pressure is applied to the other side of the piston until enough force is developed
to lift the piston-weight combination. When this happens, the piston weight combination floats
freely within the cylinder between limit stops.
In this condition of equilibrium, the pressure force of fluid is balanced against the gravitational
force of the weights pulls the friction drag.
Therefore, PA = Mg + F
Hence: P = Mg + F / A
where, P = pressure M = Mass; Kg
g = Acceleration due to gravity; m/s² F = Friction drag; N
A = Equivalent area of piston – cylinder combination; m²
Thus the pressure P which is caused due to the weights placed on the platform is calculated. After
calculating P, the plunger is released.
Now the pressure gauge to be calibrated is fitted at an appropriate place on the dead weight tester.
The same known weight which was used to calculate P is placed on the platform. Due to the eight,
the piston moves downwards and exerts a pressure P on the fluid. Now the valve in the apparatus is
opened so that the fluid pressure P is transmitted to the gauge, which makes the gauge indicate a
pressure value. This pressure value shown by the gauge should be equal to the known input
pressure P. If the gauge indicates some other value other than p the gauge is adjusted so that it
reads a value equal to p. Thus the gauge is calibrated.
It is used to calibrate all kinds of pressure gauges such as industrial pressure gauges, engine
indicators and piezoelectric transducers.
It is simple in construction and easy to use. It can be used to calibrate a wide range of pressure
measuring devices. Fluid pressure can be easily varied by adding weights or by changing the piston
cylinder combination.
The accuracy of the dead weight tester is affected due to the friction between the piston and
cylinder, and due to the uncertainty of the value of gravitational constant 'g'.

7.2.2 Measurement of High Pressures
7.2.3.1 Bulk modulus cells

The measurement of pressure above 7000 atm is referred to as high pressure measurement.
Conventional pressure measurement devices such as strain gage pressure cells or Bourdon-tube
gages can be measure up to 7000 atm. Very high pressures may be electrical resistance gages which
make use of the resistance change brought about by direct application of pressure to the electrical
conductor itself. The sensing element consists of a loosely wound coil of relatively fine wire. When
pressure is applied, the bulk compression effect results in an electrical resistance change that may
be calibrated in the applied pressure. Figure below shows a bulk modulus gage in section.
The equation resistance changes for metallic strain gages in applicable in this case also.
= -2 +
The wire will be subject to a biaxial stress
condition because the ends, in providing
electrical continuity, will generally not be
subject to pressure. Assuming that:
σx = σy = - P and σx = 0
Then
εx=εy = = - (1-υ )
εz= =
Combining above two equations we get
= +
The commonly used metals for resistance
gages are manganin and an alloy of gold and
2.1% chromium. Figure 7.14: Bulk modulus cell
The unit is available with ranges of 0–50,000 to 0–200,000 PSIG (0–350 to 0–1,400 MPa), and its
inaccuracy is ± 1 to 2% of full scale. Its advantages, when compared with other high pressure
sensors, include its relatively fast response, its remote-reading characteristic, and its design that is
absolutely safe because the probe is not subject to fatigue. The hysteresis and temperature
sensitivity of the bulk modulus cell are similar to those of other elastic element pressure sensors.
7.2.3.2 Bourdon tube Pressure Gauge

The main parts of this instrument are as follows:
An elastic transducer that is bourdon tube which is fixed and open at one end to receive the
pressure, which is to be measured. The other end of the bourdon tube is free and closed. The cross
section of the bourdon tube is elliptical. The bourdon tube is in a bent form to look like a circular
arc. To the free end of the bourdon tube is attached an adjustable link, which is intern connected to
a sector and pinion as shown in diagram. To the shaft of the pinion is connected a pointer which
sweeps over a pressure calibrated scale.

Operation of Bourdon tube
The pressure to be measured is
connected to the fixed open end of the
bourdon tube. The applied pressure
acts on the inner walls of the bourdon
tube. Due to the applied pressure, the
bourdon tube tends to change in cross
– section from elliptical to circular.
This tends to straighten the bourdon
tube causing a displacement of the free
end of the bourdon tube.
Figure 7.15: Bourdon tube pressure gauge
This displacement of the free closed end of the bourdon tube is proportional to the applied pressure.
As the free end of the bourdon tube is connected to a link – section – pinion arrangement, the
displacement is amplified and converted to a rotary motion of the pinion.
As the pinion rotates, it makes the pointer to assume a new position on a pressure calibrated scale
to indicate the applied pressure directly. As the pressure in the case containing the bourdon tube is
usually atmospheric, the pointer indicates gauge pressure.
Advantages
Give accurate results. Bourdon tube cost low.
It is simple in construction. They can be modified to give electrical outputs.
It is safe even for high pressure measurement. Accuracy is high especially at high pressures.
Limitations
They respond slowly to changes in pressure. They are subjected to hysteresis.
They are sensitive to shocks and vibrations. It cannot be used for precision measurement.
Amplification is a must as the displacement of the free end of the bourdon tube is low.
7.2.4 Measurement of Low Pressure

7.2.4.1 McLeod Vacuum Gauge
A known volume gas is compressed to a smaller volume whose final value provides an indication
of the applied pressure. The gas used must obey Boyle’s law given by;
P1V1=P2V2
Where, P1 = Applied pressure, P 2 = Pressure of gas at final condition.
V1 = Volume of gas at initial Condition. V2 = Volume of gas at final Condition.
Initial Condition = Before Compression. Final Condition = After Compression.
A known volume gas (with low pressure) is compressed to a smaller volume (with high pressure),
and using the resulting volume and pressure, the initial pressure can be calculated. This is the
principle behind the McLeod gauge operation.
The main parts of McLeod gauge are as follows: A reference column with reference capillary tube.
The reference capillary tube has a point called zero reference point. This reference column is
connected to a bulb and measuring capillary and the place of connection of the bulb with reference
column is called as cut off point. (It is called the cutoff point, since if the mercury level is raised
above this point, it will cut off the entry of the applied pressure to the bulb and measuring capillary.
Below the reference column and the bulb, there is a mercury reservoir operated by a piston.

The pressure to be measured (P1) is applied
to the top of the reference column of the
McLeod Gauge as shown in diagram. The
mercury level in the gauge is raised by
operating the piston to fill the volume as
shown by the dark shade in the diagram.
When this is the case (condition – 1), the
applied pressure fills the bulb and the
capillary. Now again the piston is operated
so that the mercury level in the gauge
increases.
When the mercury level reaches the cutoff
point, a known volume of gas (V1) is trapped
in the bulb and measuring capillary tube. The Figure 7.16: McLeod Vacuum Gauge
mercury level is further raised by operating the piston so the trapped gas in the bulb and measuring
capillary tube are compressed. This is done until the mercury level reaches the “Zero reference
Point” marked on the reference capillary (condition – 2). In this condition, the volume of the gas in
the measuring capillary tube is read directly by a scale besides it. That is, the difference in height
‘H’ of the measuring capillary and the reference capillary becomes a measure of the volume (V2)
and pressure (P2) of the trapped gas.
Now as V1,V2 and P2 are known, the applied pressure P1 can be calculated using Boyle’s Law
given by P1V1 = P2V2
Let, the volume of the bulb from the cutoff point up to the beginning of the measuring capillary
tube = V, area of cross-section of the tube = a, height of measuring capillary tube = hc.
Therefore,
Initial Volume of gas entrapped in the bulb plus measuring capillary tube = V1 = V+ ahc.
When the mercury has been forced upwards to reach the zero reference point in the reference
capillary, the final volume of the gas = V2 +ah.
Where, h = height of the compressed gas, P1 = Applied pressure of the gas unknown.
P2 = Pressure of gas at final condition = P1+h
Therefore,
P1V1= (P1+h) ah = P1ah + ah2 (Since, P1V1 = P2V2)
P1V1-P1ah = ah2 P1 = ah2/ (V1-ah).
Since, ah is very small when compared to V1, it can be neglected. Therefore, P1 = ah2/V1.
Thus the applied pressure is calculated using the McLeod Gauge. The McLeod Gauge is used to
measure vacuum pressure.
Advantages
It is independent of the gas composition.
It serves as a reference standard to calibrate other low pressure gauges.
A linear relationship exists between the applied pressure and h
There is no need to apply corrections to the McLeod Gauge readings.
Limitations
The gas whose pressure is to be measured should obey the Boyle’s law
Moisture traps must be provided to avoid any considerable vapor into the gauge.
It measure only on a sampling basis and cannot give a continuous output.

7.2.4.2 Thermal conductivity Gauge
The Pirani Gauge is a type of Thermal Conductivity Gauges. A conducting wire gets heated when
electric current flows through it. The rate at which heat is dissipated from this wire depends on the
conductivity of the surrounding media. The conductivity of the surrounding media in turn depends
on the density of the surrounding media (that is, lower pressure of the surrounding media, lower
will be its density). If the density of the
surrounding media is low, its conductivity also
will be low causing the wire to become hotter
for a given current flow, and vice versa.
The main parts of the arrangement are:
1. A pirani gauge chamber which encloses
a platinum filament.
2. A compensating cell to minimize
variation caused due to ambient
temperature changes.
3. The pirani gauge chamber and the
compensating cell are housed on a
wheat stone bridge circuit as shown in diagram. Figure 7.17 : Pirani Gauge
A constant current is passed through the filament in the pirani gauge chamber. Due to this current,
the filament gets heated and assumes a resistance which is measured using the bridge. Now the
pressure to be measured (applied pressure) is connected to the pirani gauge chamber. Due to the
applied pressure the density of the surrounding of the pirani gauge filament changes. Due to this
change in density of the surrounding of the filament its conductivity changes causing the
temperature of the filament to change. When the temperature of the filament changes the resistance
of the filament also changes. Now the change in resistance of the filament is determined using the
bridge. This change in resistance of the pirani gauge filament becomes a measure of the applied
pressure when calibrated.
Note: [higher pressure – higher density – higher conductivity – reduced filament temperature – less
resistance of filament] and vice versa.
Advantages
They are rugged and inexpensive Give accurate results
Good response to pressure changes Readings can be taken from a distance.
Relation between pressure and resistance is linear for the range of use.
Limitations
Pirani gauge must be checked frequently. Electric power is a must for its operation.

Pirani gauge must be calibrated from different gases.
7.2.4.3 Thermocouple Gauges

The working of a thermocouple type vacuum gauge is very similar to that of a pirani gauge. The
only difference is that the hot wire temperature is measured directly with a thermocouple which is
attached to a wire. For different pressures, the temperature is measured by the fine-wire
thermocouple, the hating current being initially fixed by the resistance as shown in the figure. This
device is usually used for comparison purposes. The sensitivity of such an instrument depends on
the pressure and the wire current.
The figure below shows the working of thermocouple gauges for comparison purposes. Two sets of
thermocouples are used to measure temperatures of heater wires in the two chambers and oppose
each other. When there is a difference in pressures, there occurs an unbalance which is measured
by a potentiometer circuit. Instead of a single thermocouple per wire, a thermopile is often chosen
to increase sensitivity. The thermocouple gauge is also composition dependent and needs empirical
calibration for the high vacuum range.
Figure 7.18: a) Thermocouple type vacuum gauge b) Vacuum Comparison by Thermocouple

Gauges
7.2.4.4 Ionization Gauges

Apart from the above, ionization gages are also used to measure low pressures. These are used to
measure extremely low pressures of the order of 106 micron. Its operation is similar to that of
ordinary triode electronic tube but it has variable pressure inside the tube. The change in pressure
causes the change in current flow through the circuit.

7.2.3 Acoustical Measurements
In engineering, acoustical measurements is required for two reasons.
 To determine psycho acoustical effect caused by a noise emitting devices which is sensed
by human process of hearing and
 To determine limits of structural fatigue failures induced by sound excitation (as in rocket
motors or jet engines)
Mechanical engineers are almost concerned with noise and its alternation and control as noise
affects human in many ways. Noise makes communication by direct speech difficult, it may be a
factor in marketing appliances, it may cause permanent damage to hearing or it may reduce
efficiency of workers.
Sound measuring devices and techniques

7.2.3.1 Microphones: Usually four types of microphones are used to measure sound.
a) Capacitor microphone: It is the most common microphone. It is arranged with a
diaphragm forming one plate of an air- dielectric capacitor. Movement of diaphragm
caused by impingement of sound pressure results in an output voltage.
b) Crystal microphone: It uses a piezoelectric type of element. It is used for serious sound
measurements.
c) Electrodynamics microphone: It uses the principle of the moving conductor in a
magnetic field. It falls into the category of variable reluctance transducer.
d) Carbon microphone: It consists of a capsule of carbon granules, the resistance of which
varies with change in sound pressure sensed by a diaphragm. These are used in
telephone handsets due to their limited frequency characteristics and ruggedness.
7.2.5.2 Sound level meter:
It is the commonly utilized instrument for routine sound measurement. It is made up of number
of interconnected components as shown in figure below.
Figure 7.19: Sound level meter block diagram

7.2.5.3 Spectrum analyzer
This device produces CRO amplitude vs. frequency display. It provides very convenient
means for determining the contributions of the various harmonic components making up a
complex unit.
7.2.5.4 FFT analyzer
This device is discussed in section 2.4. A real time analysis of sound can be carried out with
this device.

7.3 Measurement of Fluid Flow
Fluid flow measurements are used in numerous applications such as industrial process control, city
water system, petroleum or natural gas pipeline systems etc. Depending on property of flowing
medium (incompressible liquid, compressible gas, granular solid or combination of these) and flow
regime (laminar and turbulent), the flow measurement may have very different basic approaches.
Following is the classification of flow measurement methods.
Flow Measurement:
1. Primary
 Weight or volume tanks
 Positive displacement meters
2. Secondary
A) Obstruction meters
 Ventury
 Flow nozzle
 Orifice plate
 Variable area meters
B) Velocity probes
 Total pressure probes
 Static pressure probes
 Direction sensing probes
C) Special methods
 Turbine meter
 Hot wire/ film meter
 Magnetic flow meter
 Pulse providing devices
 Drag flow meters etc
7.3.1 Obstruction Meters for Incompressible and Compressible Fluids

7.3.1.1 Orifice Meter
When an orifice plate is placed in a pipe carrying the fluid whose rate of flow is to be measured, the
orifice plate causes a pressure drop which varies with the flow rate. This pressure drop is measured
using a differential pressure sensor and when calibrated this pressure drop becomes a measure flow
rate. The flow rate is given by.
Where, Qa = flow rate, Cd = Discharge

coefficient, A1 = Cross sectional area of
pipe, A2 = Cross sectional area of orifice,
P1, P2 = Static Pressures
Description
The main parts of an orifice flow meter
are as follows: A stainless steel orifice
plate which is held between flanges of a
pipe carrying the fluid whose flow rate is
being measured. Figure 7.20: Orifice meter

It should be noted that for a certain distance before and after the orifice plate fitted between the
flanges, the pipe carrying the fluid should be straight in order to maintain laminar flow conditions.
Openings are provided at two places 1 and 2 for attaching a differential pressure sensor (U-tube
manometer, differential pressure gauge etc) as shown in the diagram.
Operation
The fluid having uniform cross section of flow converges into the orifice plate’s opening in its
upstream. When the fluid comes out of the orifice plate’s opening, its cross section is minimum and
uniform for a particular distance and then the cross section of the fluid starts diverging in the
downstream. At the upstream of the orifice, before the converging of the fluid takes place, the
pressure of the fluid (P1) is maximum. As the fluid starts converging, to enter the orifice opening its
pressure drops. When the fluid comes out of the orifice opening, its pressure is minimum (p2) and
this minimum pressure remains constant in the minimum cross section area of fluid flow at the
downstream. This minimum cross sectional area of the fluid obtained at downstream from the
orifice edge is called VENA-CONTRACTA. The differential pressure sensor attached between
points 1 and 2 records the pressure difference (P1 – P2) between these two points which becomes
an indication of the flow rate of the fluid through the pipe when calibrated.
Applications
The concentric orifice plate is used to measure flow rates of pure fluids and has a wide applicability
as it has been standardized.
The eccentric and segmental orifice plates are used to measure flow rates of fluids containing
suspended materials such as solids, oil mixed with water and wet steam.
Advantages
It is very cheap and easy method to measure flow rate.
It has predictable characteristics and occupies less space.
It can be used to measure flow rates in large pipes.
Limitations
The vena-contracta length depends on the roughness of the inner wall of the pipe and sharpness of
the orifice plate. In certain cases it becomes difficult to tap the minimum pressure (P2) due to the
above factor.
Pressure recovery at downstream is poor, that is, overall loss varies from 40% to 90% of the
differential pressure.
In the upstream straightening vanes are a must to obtain laminar flow conditions.
It gets clogged when the suspended fluids flow.
The orifice plate gets corroded and due to this after sometime, inaccuracy occurs. Moreover the
orifice plate has low physical strength.
The coefficient of discharge is low.
7.3.1.2 Venturi-meter
When a venture meter is placed in a pipe carrying the fluid whose flow rate is to be measured, a
pressure drop occurs between the entrance and throat of the venturimeter. This pressure drop is
measured using a differential pressure sensor and when calibrated this pressure drop becomes a
measure of flow rate.

Construction
The entry of the venture is cylindrical in shape to match the size of the pipe through which fluid
flows. This enables the venture to be fitted to the pipe. After the entry, there is a converging conical
section with an included angle of 19’ to 23’.Following the converging section, there is a cylindrical
section with minimum area called as the throat. After the throat, there is a diverging conical section
with an included angle of 5’ to 15’.Openings are provided at the entry and throat (at sections 1 and
2 in the diagram) of the venture meter for attaching a differential pressure sensor (u-tube
manometer, differential pressure gauge, etc) as shown in diagram.
Operation
The fluid whose flow rate is to be measured
enters the entry section of the venturi meter with
a pressure P1.As the fluid from the entry section
of venturi meter flows into the converging
section, its pressure keeps on reducing and
attains a minimum value P2 when it enters the
throat. That is, in the throat, the fluid pressure P2
will be minimum. The differential pressure
sensor attached between the entry and throat
section of the venturi meter records the pressure
difference (P1-P2) which becomes an indication
of the flow rate of the fluid through the pipe
when calibrated. The diverging section has been
provided to enable the fluid to regain its pressure
and hence its kinetic energy. Lesser the angle of
the diverging section, greater is the recovery. Figure 7.21: Venturimeter
Application
It is used where high pressure recovery is required.
It can be used for measuring flow rates of water, gases, suspended solids, slurries and dirty liquids.
It can be used to measure high flow rates in pipes having diameters in a few meters.
Advantages
Less changes of getting clogged with sediments
Coefficient of discharge is high.
Its behavior can be predicted perfectly.
Can be installed vertically, horizontally or inclined.
Limitations
They are large in size and hence where space is limited, they cannot be used.
It has expensive initial cost, installation and maintenance.
It requires long laying length and cannot be used in pipes below 7.5cm diameter.
7.3.2 Variable area flow meters

Variable area flow meters are a type of differential pressure flow meters. These are simple and
versatile devices which are used to measure the flow of liquids, gases, and steam. They work at a
fairly constant pressure drop. In these types of flow meters, a direct visual indication of flow rate is
given by the position of the float, piston or vane. The position of their float, piston or vane gets
changed as the rising flow rate opens a larger flow area to pass the flowing fluid. Each and every
variable area flow meter is available with local indicators.

7.3.2.1 Rotameter
The rotameter is the most extensively employed
variable area flow meter. A rotameter is basically
constructed of a vertically oriented glass or plastic
tapered tube and a metering float which is free to
move within the tube. Rotameters are although
classified as differential pressure units but in
actuality they are constant differential pressure
devices. Flanged-end fittings offer a simple means
for installing them in pipes. When there is no fluid
flow, the float rests freely at the bottom of the
tube. When liquid enters the bottom of the tube,
the metering float begins to rise. The position of
the float changes directly with the flow rate. The
accurate position of the float is at the point where
the differential pressure between the upper and
lower surfaces balances the weight of the float.
The greater the flow, the higher the float gets
lifted. In case of fluids, the float rises due to a
combination of the buoyancy of the liquid and the
velocity head of the fluid whereas with gases,
buoyancy is insignificant, and the float reacts by
and large to the velocity head. A typical
Rotameter is shown in the figure. The discharge
equation of rotameter is given by: Figure 7.22: Rotameter
Q=
Where
Q= volume flow rate m3/s Cd =discharge coefficient At = area of tube, m2
2 2
Af =area of float, m g= local gravity m/s Vf =volume of float m3
Wf =sp. weight of float kg/m3 Wff =sp. weight of flowing fluid kg/m3
Major advantages of Rotameter are mentioned below:
Low cost Simplicity Low pressure drop linear output
Quite wide range ability
7.3.3 Measurement of Fluid Velocities

The fluid flow is usually proportional to fluid velocity. Therefore, measurement of flow can be
obtained by measuring velocity.
The pressure of flowing fluid is composed of two components – static pressure and dynamic
pressure. These pressures are measured by using pressure probes. The pressure probes usually
measure either static pressure Ps or total pressure Pt. The difference between total and static
pressures gives velocity pressure.
Pt=Ps +Pv =Ps +
Or, υ = for incompressible fluids

And, υ = for compressible fluids
7.3.4 Pressure Probes

A probe is a device used for point pressure measurement in a flowing fluid. This point
measurement of pressure is done to determine fluid flow rate.
7.3.4.1 Pitot tube

The most popular probe is the “PITOT TUBE” which is one of the total pressure probes. The Pitot
tube measures the combined pressure (static pressure + impact pressure). The pitot tube has one
impact opening and eight static openings as shown in the diagram. The impact opening is provided
to sense impact pressure and the static opening are provide to sense static pressure.
Operation
The Pitot tube is introduced in the
fluid flow area where point
pressure details are required
(which is an indirect measure of
flow rate). The pressure in the
outer tube is the static pressure in
the line. The total pressure in the
inner tube is greater than static
pressure. That is, total pressure is
the static pressure plus the impact
pressure. The differential pressure
(P1-P2) is measured using a
differential pressure sensor. This
differential pressure becomes a
measure of flow rate at that point
where the pitot tube is present in
the flowing fluid. Figure 7.23: Pitot tube
Applications
Pitot tubes are extensively used in laboratories to measure velocity, pressure and flow rates of
fluids.
Advantages
It causes no pressure loss in the flowing fluid. Pitot tube is cheap and very easy to install.
Limitations
It is difficult to obtain proper alignment of the pitot tube with flowing direction. It cannot be used
in fluids with suspended solids and impurities. The fluid velocity should be high in order to get a
measurable pressure difference.
7.3.4.2 Hot wire Anemometer

When an electrically heated wire is placed in a flowing gas stream, heat is transferred from the wire
to the gas and hence the temperature of the wire reduces, and due to this, the resistance of the wire
also changes. This change in resistance of the wire becomes a measure of flow rate. In research
applications, hot wire anemometers are extensively used to study varying flow conditions.

Description
The main parts of the arrangement are as follows:
Conducting wires placed in a ceramic body. Leads
are taken from the conducting wires and they are
connected to one of the limbs of the wheat stone
bridge to enable the measurement of change in
resistance of the wire.
Operation
There are two methods of measuring flow rate using
an anemometer bridge combination namely: Figure 7.24: Hot wire anemometer
Constant current method
The bridge arrangement along with the
anemometer has been shown in diagram. The
anemometer is kept in the flowing gas stream to
measure flow rate. A constant current is passed
through the sensing wire. That is, the voltage
across the bridge circuit is kept constant, that is,
not varied. Due to the gas flow, heat transfer
takes place from the sensing wire to the flowing
gas and hence the temperature of the sensing
wire reduces causing a change in the resistance
of the sensing wire (this change in resistance
becomes a measure of flow rate).Due to this, the
galvanometer which was initially at zero
position deflects and this deflection of the
galvanometer becomes a measure of flow rate of
the gas when calibrated. Figure 7.25: Constant current method
Constant temperature method
The bridge arrangement along with the
anemometer has been shown in diagram. The
anemometer is kept in the flowing gas stream to
measure flow rate. A current is initially passed
through the wire. Due to the gas flow, heat
transfer takes place from the sensing wire to the
flowing gas and this tends to change the
temperature and hence the resistance of the wire.
The principle in this method is to maintain the
temperature and resistance of the sensing wire at a
constant level. Therefore, the current through the
sensing wire is increased to bring the sensing wire
to have its initial resistance and temperature. The
electrical current required in bringing back the
resistance and hence the temperature of the wire to
its initial condition becomes a measure of flow
rate of the gas when calibrated. Figure 7.26: Constant temperature method

7.4 Temperature Measurement
7.4.1 Use of Bimaterials
7.4.1.1 Liquid-in-glass thermometer
The liquid-in-glass thermometer is a well-known temperature-
measuring instrument that is used in a wide range of applications.
The fluid used is usually either mercury or colored alcohol, and
this is contained within a bulb and capillary tube, as shown in
Figure As the temperature rises, the fluid expands along the
capillary tube and the meniscus level is read against a calibrated
scale etched on the tube. The process of estimating the position
of the curved meniscus of the fluid against the scale introduces
some error into the measurement process and a measurement
inaccuracy less than ±1% of full-scale reading is hard to achieve.
However, an inaccuracy of only ±0.15% can be obtained in the Figure 7.27: Glass thermometer
best industrial instruments. Industrial versions of the liquid-in-glass thermometer are normally
used to measure temperature in the range between -200⁰C and +1000⁰C, although instruments are
available to special order that can measure temperatures up to 1500⁰C.
7.4.1.2 Bimetallic Thermometer

These thermometers use the following two principles:
1. All metals change in dimension, that is expand or contract when there is a change in temperature.
2. The rate at which this expansion or contraction takes place depend on the temperature co-
efficient of expansion of the metal and this temperature coefficient of expansion is different for
different metals. Hence the difference in thermal expansion rates is used to produce a deflection
which is proportional to temperature changes.
The bimetallic thermometer consists
of a bimetallic strip. A bimetallic
strip is made of two thin strips of
metals which have different
coefficients of expansion. The two
metal strips are joined together by
brazing, welding or riveting so that
the relative motion between them is
arrested. The bimetallic strip is in the Figure 7.28: Bimetallic Strip
form of a cantilever beam. An increase in temperature will result in the deflection of the free end of
the strip as shown i diagram. This deflection is linear and can be related to temperature changes.
The radius of the curvature of the bimetallic strip which was initially flat is determined using the
following relationship.
R = t{3(1+m)² + (1+mn)[m²+1/mn]}/6(άh-άl)(T2-T1)(1+m)²

Where,
R= radius of the curvature at the temperature T2.
T = total thickness of the bimetallic strip = (t1+t2)
m=t1/t2 = Thickness of lower expansion metal/thickness of higher expansion metal.
άl= coefficient of expansion of lower expansion metal.
άh= coefficient of expansion of higher expansion metal.
T1 = Initial temperature. T2 = temperature.
Metals used in bimetallic strips are:
High expansion: Brass Nickel-iron alloyed with chromium & manganese.
Low Expansion: Invar (alloy of nickel & iron).
Applications
The bimetallic strip is used in control devices.
The spiral strip is used in air conditioning thermostats.
The helix strip is used for process application such as refineries, oil burners, tyre vulcanizers etc.,
Advantages
They are simple, robust and inexpensive.
Their accuracy is between +or- 2% to 5% of the scale.
They can with stand 50% over range in temperatures.
They can be used wherever mercury–in-glass thermometer is used.
Limitations
They are not recommended for temperature above 400’C.
When regularly used, the bimetallic may permanently deform, which in turn will introduce errors.
7.4.2 Pressure thermometers

The fragility of liquid-in-glass thermometers is overcome by
using metal containers filled with expanding liquids or gases.
Such devices utilize the principle of expansion (or contraction)
of filled medium depending on the temperature and are called
pressure thermometers. Pressure thermometers are generally
used in process industries and are normally designed for remote
indicating or recording of temperature. The essential parts of a
pressure thermometer are bulb, capillary tube, and pressure
sensing gage. Pressure thermometers are called liquid-filled
depending on the type of filling medium. The primary
advantage of this type of thermometers is that they can Figure 7.29: Pressure thermometer
provide sufficient force output to permit the direct driving of a recording or a controlling device.
The thermometer is relatively less costly and the tube length can be as long as 200 ft. (60 m).

Expansion or contraction of fluid or gas in the bulb due to changes in temperature causes change in
volume or pressure in the system. In case of liquid filled system, the gage acts as a differential
volume indicator and for the gas/vapor filled systems, the sensing device (gage) serves as a
pressure indicator.
The covered ranges for different systems are:
Liquid filled system – 150⁰F to 750⁰F for xylene
-380⁰F to 1100⁰F for mercury
Gas filled system - 400⁰F to 1200⁰F
Vapor filled system - 400⁰F to 600⁰F
7.4.3 Thermoelectric Thermometry

Temperature can be measured using temperature-sensitive electrical elements. Some elements
change their resistance with temperature and some elements, with certain arrangement, produce
emf when there is a temperature difference.
7.4.3.1 Thermistors
Initially, thermistor is placed in the
environment whose temperature is to be
measured. Then, Thermistor is connected in a
series simple circuit consisting of battery and
micro-ammeter as shown below. Any change
in temperature causes a change in resistance
of Thermistor. Hence, corresponding change
in circuit current. By directly calibrating
micro ammeter in terms of temperature, we
can measure temperature. Figure 7.30: Temperature measurement using thermistors
Advantages
Low cost Sensitivity is high Small in size Good stability High output signal.
Disadvantages
Non-linear output is seen Not suitable for high temperature measurement
Requires external power supply
Applications
Used for measurement and control of temperature. Used for providing time delay.
Used as temperature compensation element in electronic equipments.
Used for measuring thermal conductivity of a medium.

7.4.4.2 Thermo resistive elements
The resistance elements sensitive to temperature are made of metals such as nickel, copper,
platinum or silver. A temperature sensing device made of this type of element is traditionally called
resistance thermometers. The elements made from semiconductors appeared later and the
temperature measuring devices using such elements are called thermistors.
7.4.4.1 Metal Resistance Thermometer

This thermometer is an instrument used to measure the temperature variation in control room. In
each metallic conductor, their resistance changes when its temperature is changed. By calculating
the variation in resistance, the temperature variations may be calculated. The thermometer which
utilizes this phenomenon is called “resistance thermometer”.
The construction of resistance thermometer
detector is shown in figure. RTD uses
platinum, nickel or copper as a resistance
element. Generally, platinum wire is
wound on either ceramic bobbin to form a
resistance element. This resistance element
is placed inside the hollow structure called
protection tube. It is made up of stainless
steel or carbon steel.
Internally lead wire is used to connect
resistance element with external lead
terminals. Lead wire covered by insulated Figure 7.31: Metal resistance thermometer
tube for short circuit prevention. Fiber glass is used for low and medium temperature and a ceramic
insulation for high temperature. Protection tube is used to protect the resistance element and
internal lead wires from ambient conditions. Protection tube is fitted with the mounting attachment
to install the resistance temperature detector to measuring point.
Initial resistance is measured by using Wheatstone bridge. Probe tip of the RTD is placed near the
heat source. Outer cover uniformly distributes heat to sensing resistance element. As the
temperature varies, the resistance of the material also varies. Now, final resistance is again
measured. From the above measurement, variation in temperature can be calculated as follows:
Rt = R0 (1+Dt)
Dt = ((Rt/R0)-1)/x
Where,
Rt = resistance at C. R0 = Resistance at room temperature.

Dt = Difference in temperature X = Temperature coefficient of RTD material.
Thus from above formula by knowing Rt, R0 and x, the difference in temperature can be calculated.
Advantages
Accuracy is more. More linear than thermocouple.
No necessary for temperature compensation. Performance is stable for long period.
Disadvantages
Expensive Small range
External current source is required Low sensitivity
7.4.5 Thermocouples and Circuitry

7.4.5.1 Laws of thermo electricity
Actual applications of the thermocouple to measure require the consideration of following laws of
thermo electricity.
First law of homogeneous circuit
An electric current cannot be sustained in a circuit of single homogenous by application of heat
done. This law is generally accepted to an experimental. In thermocouple, an emf is formed by
joining two dissimilar wires/metals.
Figure 7.32: Law of homogenous circuit

Second law of intermediate metals
It states that intersection of third metal into a thermocouple circuit will have no effects, as long as a
junction by the third metal with thermocouple at the same temperature.
Figure 7.33: Law of intermediate metals

Applications
This law makes it possible to use extension wires at metals different from the thermocouple
because platinum extension wires are at the same temperature high cost, copper can be used
without any change in performance. The law enables an instrument to be introduced into the circuit
to be means the emf produced. This law allows the use of joining material such or hard solder
(silver) in fabricating the thermocouple and junction.
Law of intermediate thermocouple
The emf generated in a thermocouple with junction at temperature T1 and T3 is equal to sum of emf
generated by similar thermocouple one acting between T2 + T3 and where T2 between T1+T3. This
law is used when making or reference junction temperature is different from temperature at which
it is calibrated. Thus a thermocouple is calibrated with reference junction at 0’C is used and with
the junction at 20’C.
7.4.5.2 Thermocouple
Temperature Measurement using thermocouple is very simple procedure and easy to understand.
Circuit of temperature measurement using thermocouple

Simple temperature measurement using
thermocouple is shown in the figure above.
Hot junction is placed near the heat source,
whose temperature is to be measured. A
sensitive mill voltmeter is directly connected
across the reference junction. Now the
deflection of the meter is directly
proportional to the difference in temperature
between the hot junction and reference
junction.
Figure 7.34: Temperature measurement using thermocouple
Advantages
Cheaper than RTD. Rugged in construction.
Used for wide temperature range. No external power is required.
Disadvantages
Non-linear output is produced. Low output signal. Instability.
7.4.1 Linear Quartz Thermometer

The quartz thermometer is a high-precision, high accuracy temperature sensor. It measures
temperature by measuring the frequency of a quartz crystal oscillator. The oscillator contains a
specially cut crystal that results in a linear temperature coefficient of frequency, so the

measurement of the temperature is essentially reduced to measurement of the oscillator frequency.
Resolutions of .0001 °C and accuracy of .02 °C from 0-100 ° C are achievable. The high linearity
makes it possible to achieve high accuracy over an important temperature range that contains only
one convenient temperature reference point for calibration, the triple point of water.
It was introduced by Hewlett-Packard in 1965, the successor company, Agilent, has discontinued
the Model 2804A Quartz Thermometer. Other manufacturers make nearly linear-in-temperature
quartz crystals that may be used to construct thermometers of similar performance.
7.4.7 Pyrometry
When the temperature of the body becomes very high, it becomes very difficult to measure the
temperature with TRD, thermistors or thermocouples because of instability, breakdown of
insulation etc. In such cases, radiation method is used which is also called Pyrometry.
7.4.7.1 Total radiation pyrometer

The total radiation pyrometer receives all the radiation from a particular are of hot body. The term
total radiation includes both the visible and invisible radiations. It consists of radiation receiving
element and a measuring device.
The mirror type radiation pyrometer
is shown in figure below. Here, the
diaphragm unit along with a mirror is
used to focus the radiation on a
thermocouple. The distance between
the mirror and the thermocouple is
adjusted for proper focus.
Here, the image of the front
diaphragm is focused on the
thermocouple by the mirror. Therefore, Figure 7.35: Total radiation pyrometer
the temperature measurements are independent of the distance of the target.
If there is any smoke, dust in the space between the target and transducer, it reduces the radiation.
Hence, negative errors. If there are any heat sources like hot gases and flames, then the meter
reading will be high. The characteristic of this pyrometer is non-linear. It has poor sensitivity. This
device is not used for temperature lower than 600 to 1200 degree Celsius. Output from this
pyrometer is taken to pmmc instrument.
Advantages
Used to measure very high temperature High output signal and moderate cost.
No need to have contact with measuring system. Fast response
Disadvantage
Non-linear scale Error will occur Emissivity of target material affects the measurements

Application
Used to measure temperature of moving target
Used to measure temperature of a target where physical contact is impossible.
Used to measure temperature in corrosive environment
Used to measure invisible rays from radiations
7.4.7.2 Optical pyrometer

The principle of temperature measurement by
brightness comparison is used in optical
pyrometer. A color variation with the growth in
temperature is taken as an index of temperature.
This optical pyrometer compares the brightness of
image produced by temperature source with that
of reference temperature lamp. The current in the
lamp is adjusted until the brightness of the lamp is
equal to the brightness of the image produced by
the temperature source. Since the intensity of
light of any wave length depends on the
temperature of the radiating object, the current
passing through the lamp becomes a measure of Figure 7.36: Optical pyrometer
the temperature of the temperature source when calibrated.
The main parts of an optical pyrometer are as follows: An eye piece at one end and an objective
lens at the other end. A power source (battery), rheostat and mill voltmeter (to measure current)
connected to a reference temperature bulb.
An absorption screen is placed in between the objective lens and reference temperature lamp. The
absorption screen is used to increase the range of the temperature which can be measured by the
instrument. The red filter between the eye piece and the lamp allows only a narrow band of
wavelength of around 0.65mui
Operation
When a temperature source is to be measured, the radiation from the source is focused onto the
filament of the reference temperature lamp using the objective lens. Now the eye piece is adjusted
so that the filament of the reference temperature lamp is in sharp focus and the filament is seen
super imposed on the image of the temperature source. Now the observer starts controlling the
lamp current and the filament will appear dark as in figure (a) if the filament is cooler than the
temperature source, the filament will appear bright as in figure (b) if the filament is hotter than the

temperature source, the filament will not be seen as in figure (c) if the filament and temperature
source are in the same temperature.
Hence the observer should control the lamp
current until the filament and the temperature
source have the same brightness which will be
noticed when the filament disappears as in
figure (c) in the superimposed image of the
temperature source [ that is the brightness of
the lamp and the temperature source are
same]. At the instance, the current flowing
through the lamp which is indicated by the
mill voltmeter connected to the lamp becomes
a measure of the temperature of the
temperature source when calibrated. Figure 7.37: Image of temperature source
Applications
Optical pyrometers are used to measure temperature of molten metals or heated materials.
Optical pyrometers are used to measure temperature of furnace and hot bodies.
Advantages
Physical contact of the instrument is not required to measure temperature of the temperature source.
Accuracy is high + or – 5’C. Provided a proper sized image of the temperature source is obtained in
the instrument, the distance between the instrument and the temperature source doesn’t matter. The
instrument is easy to operate.
Limitations
Temperature of more than 700’C can only be measured since illumination of the temperature
source is a must for measurement. Since it is manually operated, it cannot be used for the
continuous monitoring and controlling purpose.

INSTRUMENTATION & MEASUREMENT
TUTORIAL NO: 1
(MEASUREMENT SYSTEM AND FOURIER SERIES)
1. Indicate the functional elements of the following measuring devices shown in Figure T1.1.
(a) Bourdon tube pressure gauge (b) Diaphragm type liquid level Gauge
Figure T1.1
2. A voltmeter having a sensitivity of 1000Ω/V reads 100V on its scale when connected across an
unknown resistor in series with a milli-ammeter. When the milli-ammeter reads 5mA, calculate
a) apparent resistance of the unknown resistor, b) actual resistance of the unknown resistor, and
c) error due to the loading effect of voltmeter.
3. Average power transmitted by a rotating shaft is calculated by using a dynamometer where the
following measurements were made. N = 1202±2 rpm, F = 50.0±0.2N, t =60±0.5 sec, L =
0.335±0.001 m where HP = 2 NFL/750t. Calculate the nominal HP and its uncertainty.
4. Resistance of the coil is 15±2%Ω when a voltage V is impressed under resistor, the power
dissipation P can be measured in two different ways. a) P =I2R and b) P =IV.
Given: supply voltage across the capacitor, V = 150±1% volt and current flow through the
resistor, I = 10±1% Amp. Suggest which of the following should be used so that there is lesser
uncertainty in the computed value.
5. The following expression represents the displacement of a point as a function of time:
y(t) = 100 + 95 sin 15t + 55 cos 15 t
(a) What is the fundamental frequency in Hz?
(b) Rewrite the equation in terms of cosines only.

6. Rewrite each of the following expressions in standard Fourier Series Expansion form:
(a) y = 3.2 cos (0.2t – 0.3) + sin (0.2t + 0.4)
(b) y = 12 sin (t – 0.4)
7. The following equation represents the time variation of a mechanical strain:
 = 120 + 95 sin 15t + 40 sin 30t + 18 sin 45t – 55 cos 15t – 24 cos 45t
(a) How may harmonics are present?
(b) What is the fundamental frequency in Hz?
(c) What is the amplitude of the third harmonic component?
8. Determine Fourier series expansion for the following time dependent signals (Figure T1.2).
A
0 2 4 6
(a)
A
0 2 4 6
(b)
A
0 2 4 6
(c)
Figure T1.2

ANSWERS
2. 20kΩ, 23.077kΩ, -13.33%
3. 2.814±.0273HP, -0.001453HP
4. B
5. 15/2 Hz; 100 + 109.77 cos (15t – 1.046)
6. 3.446 cos 0.2t + 1.867 sin 0.2t; 11.053 sin t – 4.673 cos t
7. 3, 2.387 Hz, 30
4A  1 1 
8. (a)  sin t  sin 3t  sin 5t  .........
  3 5 
2A  1 1 
(b)  sin t  sin 2t  sin 3t  ..........
  2 3 
A 4A  1 1 
(c)  2  cos t  2 cos 3t  2 cos 5t  ...........
2   3 5 

TUTORIAL NO: 2
(ZERO AND FIRST ORDER SYSTEMS)
1. The individual sensitivities of different elements comprising a temperature measuring system
are:
Transducer 0.3 /0C
Wheatstone bridge 0.01 V/
Amplifier gain 80 V/V
Pen recorder 0.12 cm/V
Determine the overall sensitivity and the temperature change corresponding to a recorder pen
movement of 3 cm.
2. The following data pertains to measurement of angular speed by a dc tachogenerator.
Angular Velocity (rev/min) 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
Output Voltage (Volts) 0 8.9 15.1 23.5 29.7 38.8 47.5
Plot the results and determine the order of the system and make an estimate of sensitivity of the
instrument.
3. Determine the time constant and static sensitivity of mercury-in-glass thermometer whose
dynamic performance is prescribed by the following differential equation:
dq o
4.5 + 3 q0 = 1.5  10-3 qi
dt
where q0 is the height of the mercury column in m and qi is the input temperature, in 0C.
4. A first order instrument has a time constant of 0.2 s. For a step input to the instrument, find the
time at which the ratio of the output to the input signals is 0.8.
5. Assume that a particular temperature probe approximates first-order behavior in a particular
application, that it has a time constant of 6 s, and that it is suddenly subjected to a temperature
step of 750C – 3000C.
(a) What temperature will be indicated 10 s after the process has been initiated?
(b) Find the indicated temperature after 10 s if the same probe is subjected to a step 3000C –
750C.
6. A thermometer is initially at a temperature of 200C and is suddenly plunged into a liquid bath,
which is maintained at 1500C. The thermometer indicated 950C after time interval of 3 s.
Estimate the time constant for the thermometer. Also calculate the indicated temperature after
five time constants and comment upon the results.
7. A measuring element with a time constant of 0.4 s and a static sensitivity of 0.05 mV/0C is used
to measure the temperature of a medium, which changes from 20 to 600C. Taking the output as
zero at 200C, find the output voltage at the end of 5 s, if the temperature changes from 20 to
600C, occurs at a constant rate in 5 s.
8. In a response test of a thermometer, which was suddenly put in water bath at 1000C, the
following data was obtained:

Time, t (s) 0 1 3 6 8 11 15 18
Temperature, (0C) 30 50 65 80 90 95 98 99
(a) Find the time constant of the thermometer.
(b) Find the steady state error if the thermometer is used to measure temperature of liquid
cooling at a rate of 10C every 6 s.
9. A first order instrument has a time constant of 2 s. For sinusoidal input to the instrument, find
the frequency at which the amplitude of the output signal is 0.8 times the amplitude of the input
signal.
10. A first order instrument must measure signals with frequency content upto 100 Hz with an
amplitude inaccuracy of 5 %. What is the maximum allowable time constant? What will be the
phase shift at 50 and 100 Hz?
11. The input signal of qi = sin 0.2t + 0.3 sin 2t is given to two different first order instruments with
time constants 1 = 2 s and 2 = 0.02 s respectively. Find out the output response of the above
instruments. Comment upon the results.
12. A thermocouple with a time constant of 0.3 s and a static sensitivity of 0.04 mV/0C is used to
measure the temperature of a medium, which varies as shown in Figure P2.12. If the initial
temperatures of the thermocouple reference and measuring junctions was 250C, find the output
of the thermocouple at t = 0.6 s and 30 s.
1000C
25 0C time
0 0.6 30.0
Figure P2.12
ANSWERS
1. 0.0288 cm/0C, 104.1670C 11. a) 0.93 sin (2t – 21.80) + 0.073 sin (20t – 760)
2. Zero order, 0.0153 V/RPM 11. b)sin (2t – 0.230) + 0.3 sin (20t – 2.30C)
3. 1.5 s, 0.5  10-3 m/0C 12. 2.6mV, 0.03mV
4. 0.32 s
5. 2570C, 1170C
6. 3.487 s, 149.120C
7. 1.84mV
8. 4.5 s, 0.750C
9. 0.597 Hz
10. 0.523 ms, – 9.330C, – 180C

SAMPLE PROBLEMS FOR TUTORIAL NO: 2
(ZERO AND FIRST ORDER SYSTEMS)
13. A pressure measuring system consists of a piezoelectric transducer, a charge amplifier, and a
ultraviolet charge recorder. The sensitivities of these elements are stated as follows:
Piezoelectric transducer: K1 = 8.5 pC/bar
Charge amplifier: K2 = 0.004 V/pC
Ultravoilet charge recorder: K3 = 20 mm/V
What would be the deflection on the chart due to a pressure change of 30 bar? (20.4 mm)
14. A measuring system has an exponential response to step input. The time constant of the system
is 2 s. What is the time required for reaching (a) 50 % (b) 80 % of the steady state reading?
(1.39s, 3.2 s)
15. A mercury –in –glass thermometer initially at 250C is suddenly immersed into a liquid that is
maintained at 1000C. After a time interval of 2 s the thermometer reads 76 0C. Assuming a first
order system, estimate the time constant of the thermometer. (1.755 s)
16. A balloon carrying a first order thermometer with a 15-s time constant rises through the
atmosphere 6 m/s. Assume temperature varies with altitude at 0.150C/30 m. The balloon radios
temperature and altitude readings back to the ground. At 3000 m the balloon says the
temperature of 00C. What is the true altitude at which 00C occurs? (2910 m)
17. A thermometer with time constant of 60 s is used for measuring temperature cycling with 600 s
time period. Find the time lag, and ratio of output to input. If the same instrument is used for
the measurement of an input with a time period of 120 s, calculate the measuring the lag and
the ratio of output to input. Comment upon the result. (53.6 s, 0.847; 24.1 s, 0.303)
18. A thermocouple system with a time constant of 8 seconds has been used to measure the
temperature of a furnace whose temperature difference fluctuates sinusoidally between 4000C
and 4500C with a periodic time of 60 s. Determine the maximum and minimum values that will
be indicated by the by the thermocouple. Calculate the phase angle and the corresponding time
lag between the temperature signals and the thermocouple output signals. (444.20C, 405.80C,
6.669 s)
19. A first order instrument having a time constant of 0.25 s has been subjected to a sinusoidal
input prescribed by the relation: qi = 0.25 sin 20t. Develop an expression for the corresponding
output. [0.049 sin (20t – 78.69)]
20. A thermocouple having a first order response characteristics is used to measure a single
temperature pulse having a half wave sinusoidal shape (with maximum amplitude E and time
period T). Find the output response of the thermocouple for (a) T = 4, and (b) T = 10,  being
the time constant of the thermometer.

TUTORIAL NO: 3
(SECOND ORDER SYSTEMS)
1. Determine the natural frequency, damping ratio and the static sensitivity for a system
prescribed by the following differential equation:
d 2 q0 dq
2
 2.5  10 3 0  2  1010 q0 = 1011qi
dt dt
The equation pertains to a piezoelectric transducer where q0 is the output charge in pC and qi is
the input acceleration in m/s2.
2. A second order system is subjected to a sinusoidal input. Undamped natural frequency is 3 Hz
and damping ratio is 0.5. Calculate the amplitude ratio and phase angle for an input frequency
of 2 Hz.
3. A torque sensing transducer is connected to the shaft of an electric motor which drives a load
that has a moment of inertia of 200  10-3 kg m2. What should be the damping ratio of the
system when a sinusoidal torque varying at a frequency of 2 rad/s is to be reproduced with a
maximum error of + 10 %? The torsional constant is 1.5 Nm/rad.
4. In a pressure measuring transducer consisting of a number of strain gauges bonded to a
diaphragm, the undamped natural frequency of the system is found to be 60 kHz, and the
damping ratio 0.6. Calculate the amplitude of the output signal in terms of pressure, if the input
pressure to the transducer is fluctuating sinusoidally with an amplitude of 800 kPa at a
frequency of 30 kHz. What is the percentage error in the amplitude of output?
5. A second order control system of transfer function
q0 10
 2
qi D  5D  25
has been subjected to unit amplitude input signal which has a frequency of 0.5 Hz. Establish an
expression for the steady state response of the system and determine the corresponding output
amplitude, output frequency and phase lag.
6. A sinusoidal forcing function has been impressed on a spring mass damper for which the
natural frequency is 100 Hz and the damping ratio is 0.7. Calculate the amplitude ratio for and
the time lag of the system for an input frequency of 40 Hz. Further compute the frequency
range over which the system will have an amplitude ratio of 1.00  0.01.
7. A second order system has a natural frequency of 10 Hz and a damping ratio of 0.3. Calculate
the value of resonant frequency and the magnitude ratio at this frequency. Also calculate the
bandwidth. Find the value of steady state error to unit ramp input.
ANSWERS
1. 1.414  105 rad/s, 8.8 4 10-5, 5 pC 5. 0.4587, 46.040
2. 1.153, – 50.60 6. 0.9905, 33.70, 40.48 Hz
3. 0.534 7. 9.05 Hz, 1.75, 14.5 Hz, 9.5 ms
4. 832 kPa, + 4 %

SAMPLE PROBLEMS FOR TUTORIAL NO: 3
(SECOND ORDER SYSTEMS)
1. A linear second order system with single degree of freedom system has a mass of 8  10-3 kg
and stiffness of 1000 N/m. Calculate the natural frequency of the system. (i) Determine the
damping constant necessary to just prevent overshoot in response to a step input of force. (ii)
Calculate the frequency of damped oscillations if the damping ratio is used to 60 % of its value
as calculated in (i). (5.66 N/m/s, 282.9 rad/s)
2. A second order instrument is required to measure input signals with frequencies upto 100 Hz
with an amplitude of inaccuracy of 2 %. If the damping ratio of the instrument is 0.7, what
should be its undamped natural frequency? (211.3 Hz, – 40.50)
3. A potentiometer whose moving parts weigh 5  10-3 kg measures displacement of a spring mass
system as shown in Figure. The mass of the system is M kg. The system is subjected to a step
input. The measured natural frequency is 30 Hz. If the spring constant K and mass M of the
system are unknown, can the true natural frequency be found from the above data? Suppose an
additional mass of 5  10-3 kg is attached to the potentiometer and the test is repeated. This
gives a natural frequency of 25 Hz. Calculate the true natural frequency of the system. (40 Hz)
4. A d'Arsonval galvanometer is a second order instrument. It has a spring stiffness such that a
torque of 40 N/m gives a steady deflection of 900. If the inertia of the rotating parts is 0.5 
10-6 kg m2 and the damping constant is 5 Nm/rad s-1, determine the damping ratio, the natural
angular frequency, and the frequency of damped oscillation. Determine the steady state
dynamic error when the input voltage is increasing at a steady rate of 5 V/s. (0.7, 7.14 rad/s, 5.1
rad/s)
5. A second order pressure transducer has an undamped natural frequency of 300 rad/s, damping
ratio of 0.1 and a static sensitivity of 10-6 V/N/m2. It is connected to a second order recording
device which has an undamped natural frequency of 400 rad/s damping ratio of 0.5 and static
sensitivity of 2 V/mm. If the input is a harmonic pressure signal of amplitude 1000 N/m2 and
frequency 30 Hz, find the value of the output amplitude recorded and the phase difference
between the input and output signals. (8.88 mm, – 42.90)

TUTORIAL NO: 4
(SENSORS AND STRAIN GAUGE)
1. A linear wire wound potentiometer has a total resistance of 8 k, and the overheating
effects limit the maximum power dissipation to 50 mW. Determine the maximum value of
excitation voltage. Also determine the output voltage if the input displacement is 1.25 mm
and the maximum displacement for the potentiometer device is 4.5 mm. Assume maximum
permissible excitation voltage is applied.
2. A capacitive transducer is constructed of two quartz diaphragms of 600 mm 2 and separated

by a distance of 4 mm. With no pressure on the diaphragm, the device has a capacitance of
250  10-12F. When a pressure of 800 kPa is applied to one of the diaphragms, there occurs
an average deflection of 0.5 mm. Calculate the change in the capacitance of the system.
3. The output of a transducer with a total resistance of 120  has been measured with a
potentiometer ballast circuit. The supply voltage is 100 V and maximum sensitivity is
attained at the mid position of the transducer. Make calculations for the sensitivity at 25 %
and 75 % position, and comment on results.
4. The output from a pressure pick up has been measured by a simple ballast circuit which is
so designed that the ballast resistance is 5 times the total resistance of the potentiometer.
Calculate the voltage output at 50 % load on the potentiometer if the unit has been
energized by a 100 V supply.
5. A resistance bridge circuit has the resistances: R1 = 120.5 , R2 = 119.5  and R3 = 118.5
. Calculate the resistance R4 if the bridge is to have resistance balance. What open circuit
voltage would be indicated on a meter if R4 has a value of 121.5 ? The bridge is energized
with a 12 V dc source and the meter has infinite impedance.
6. A metallic electric resistance strain gauge of 120 resistances with gauge factor of 2 is
cemented onto an aluminium test surface. If the yield stress 20 MPa and Young's modulus
of elasticity is 70 GPa, determine the change in resistance of the gauge that would be
caused by loading the material to yield point.
7. A strain gauge has gauge factor of 4. If the strain gauge is attached to a metal bar that
stretches from 0.25 m to 0.255 m when stained, what is the percentage change in resistance?
If the unstrained value of gauge is 120, what is the resistance value of gauge after
application of strain?
8. A strain gauge potentiometric circuit uses a strain gauge of 120  and a gauge factor of 2.
When working under maximum sensitivity conditions, the current flow through the system
is limited to 20 mA. Calculate the supply voltage and the change in output voltage when a
strain of 500 -strain is impressed upon the gauge.

9. A strain gauge bridge comprise of two fixed resistors each of have 120 , one active gauge,
and an unstrained temperature compensation gauge. The two gauge connected in adjacent
arms of the bridge has a unstrained resistance of 120  and a gauge factor of 2.2. Find the
bridge output voltage for a supply voltage output of 3 V, when the active gauge is subjected
to 600 -strain.
10. A single electrical resistance strain gauge of resistance 120  and having a gauge factor of
2 is bonded to steel having an elastic limit stress of 400 kPa and modulus of elasticity of
200 GPa. Calculate the change in resistance:
(a) due to a change in stress equal to 1/10 of the elastic range of steel and due to a change of
temperature of 200C, if the material is advance alloy for which resistance temperature
coefficient is 20  10-6/0C.
(b) Calculate the strain due to differential expansion of the gauge metal and steel, if coefficient
of linear expansion of steel is 12  10-6/0C and that of advance alloy is 16  10-6/0C.
ANSWERS
1. 20 V, 5.55 V
2. 35.71  10-12F
3. 0.7407 V/m, 0.2666 V/m
4. 8.33 V
5. 117.52 , 100 mV
6. 0.0686 
7. 8 %, 129.6 
8. 4.8 V, 1.2 mV
9. 0.99 mV
10. 0.048 , 0.019 

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TRIBHUVAN UNIVERSITY

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

THAPATHALI CAMPUS, THAPATHALI

INSTRUMENTATION & MEASUREMENT 1 Khem Gyanwali

CHAPTER 1: FUNDAMENTALS OF MESUREMENT ................................................................ 3

CHAPTER 2 : TIME DEPENDENT PROPERTIES OF ANALOG SIGNALS .............................. 8

CHAPTER 3 : STATIC CHARACTERISTICS OF MEASUREMENT SYSTEM ....................... 13

CHAPTER 4: DYNAMIC RESPOSE OF MEASUREMET SYSTEM ......................................... 21

CHAPTER 5 : SENSORS ............................................................................................................... 51

CHAPTER 6 : STRAIN GAGES .................................................................................................... 63

CHAPTER 7 : COMMON MECHANICAL MEASUREMENT SYSTEM AND TRANSDUCERS

TUTORIAL NO: 1 .................................................................................................................... 105

TUTORIAL NO: 2 .................................................................................................................... 108

SAMPLE PROBLEMS FOR TUTORIAL NO: 2 ................................................................. 110

TUTORIAL NO: 3 .................................................................................................................... 111

SAMPLE PROBLEMS FOR TUTORIAL NO: 3 ................................................................. 112

TUTORIAL NO: 4 .................................................................................................................... 113

INSTRUMENTATION & MEASUREMENT 2 Khem Gyanwali

Figure 1.1: Fundamental Measuring Process

INSTRUMENTATION & MEASUREMENT 3 Khem Gyanwali

1.2 The Generalized Measurement System

Figure 1.2: Generalized Measurement System

1.2.1 Sensor-Transducer Stage

Unfortunately, it is rare indeed to find a detecting device that is completely selective.

1.2.2 Signal-Conditioning Stage

INSTRUMENTATION & MEASUREMENT 4 Khem Gyanwali

1.3 Calibration Concepts

1.4 Measurement Errors

Error = True value – Measured value

1.4.2 Types of Error

1.4.2.1 Gross Errors

INSTRUMENTATION & MEASUREMENT 5 Khem Gyanwali

Figure 1.3: Distribution with systematic error

II) Environmental Errors:

INSTRUMENTATION & MEASUREMENT 6 Khem Gyanwali

Figure 1.4: Distribution with random error

INSTRUMENTATION & MEASUREMENT 7 Khem Gyanwali

2.2 Harmonic Signals

INSTRUMENTATION & MEASUREMENT 8 Khem Gyanwali

2.3 Periodic Signals, Fourier Series Representation

INSTRUMENTATION & MEASUREMENT 9 Khem Gyanwali

where A, An and Bn = amplitude-determining constants called harmonic coefficients, and

Equation (2.9) may be written in the two equivalent forms:

f(t) = A0 + C n cos nt   n  ………. (2.10a)

f(t) = A0 + C n sin nt   n ' ………. (2.10b)

where the harmonic coefficients Cn are determine by the relation

and the phase relations n and n' are determined as follows:

INSTRUMENTATION & MEASUREMENT 10 Khem Gyanwali

2.4.1 Analytical Method

2.4.2 FFT Method

If N represents the number harmonic coefficients to be determined, ordinary harmonic analysis

INSTRUMENTATION & MEASUREMENT 11 Khem Gyanwali

Figure 2.2: Block Diagram a FFT Analyzing System

INSTRUMENTATION & MEASUREMENT 12 Khem Gyanwali

The equation for Gi can be written as two parts multiplied together.

3.2 Static characteristics of measurement system

INSTRUMENTATION & MEASUREMENT 13 Khem Gyanwali

(i) Accuracy as "Percentage of Full Scale"

b. Error Percentage = ± 0.15 bar/2.0 bar * 100 = ± 7.5 %

INSTRUMENTATION & MEASUREMENT 14 Khem Gyanwali

(a) High precision with

(c) High accuracy with

Figure 3.1: Illustration of Accuracy and Precision

Accuracy vs. Precision