MECHANICAL MEASUREMENTS AND METROLOGY

(Course Code:18ME36B)

Department of Mechanical Engineering

JSS Academy of Technical Education, Bangalore-560060
 TEXT BOOKS

• Mechanical Measurements, Beckwith Marangoni and Lienhard, Pearson Education, 6th Ed., 2006.
• Instrumentation, Measurement and Analysis, B C Nakra, K K Chaudhry, 4th Edition, McGraw Hill.
• Engineering Metrology, R.K. Jain, Khanna Publishers, Delhi, 2009

REFERENCE BOOKS:

• Engineering Metrology and Measurements, N.V.Raghavendra and L.Krishnamurthy, Oxford

University Press..

Further Reference:
 National Programme on Technology Enhanced Learning (NPTEL)
http://nptel.ac.in/courses/112104121/1
 MODULE 4

MECHANICAL MEASUREMENTS AND METROLOGY

CHAPTER 7: Measurement system

 Learning Objectives

Explain basic definitions in measurements

 Module 4

Measurement systems

Definition, Significance of measurement, Generalized measurement system, Static

characteristics- Accuracy, Precision, Calibration, Threshold, Sensitivity, Hysteresis,

Repeatability, Linearity, Loading effect, Dynamic characteristics- System response,

Time delay. Errors in measurement, Classification of errors.

 Introduction

Why Make Measurements?

• Designing physical systems

• Measurements for commerce
• Verifying / validating the functionality of the parts/components
Measuring process

Measurement is defined as the quantification of a physical variable using a

measuring instrument.
Generalized measurement system

Elements of a generalized measurement system

 Generalized measurement system

Primary detector–transducer stage

• Primary detector–transducer stage senses the input signal.

• Transform the signal into its analogous signal.
 Generalized measurement system
Intermediate modifying stage

• The input signal is modified and amplified by signal conditioning and processing

devices before passing it to the output stage.

• Signal conditioning (noise reduction and filtering) is to enhance the condition of

the signal.

• The signal is processed by means of integration, differentiation, addition,

subtraction, digitization, modulation. etc.

• Output should be analogous to the input.

 Generalized measurement system

Output or Terminating stage

• The output stage provides a value of the i/p measured being analogous to o/p.

• The output is either indicated or recorded by a scale and pointer, digital display,

CRO, for subsequent evaluations

• Recording may be in the form of chart or a computer printout.

• Other methods of recording include punched paper tapes, magnetic tapes, or

video tapes, photographs etc.

 Generalized measurement system
Examples of the three stages of a generalized measurement system
 BASIC DEFINITIONS

Hysteresis in Measurement Systems

• The value of the quantity being measured
should remain same whether the
measurements have been obtained in an
ascending or a descending order.

Hysteresis is due to the presence of dry friction

& the properties of elastic elements.
 BASIC DEFINITIONS
Linearity in Measurement Systems

• A measuring instrument is said to be linear, if it

uniformly responds to incremental changes,
i.e. the o/p = i/p, over a specified range.

The maximum deviation of the o/p from the i/p

 BASIC DEFINITIONS

Resolution in Measurement Systems

• A Resolution is the smallest change in a physical property that an instrument can

sense / detect reliably

• Resolution is the closeness of the reading of the measuring quantity with the true

value / standard.

E.g.: Weighing machine

 BASIC DEFINITIONS

Threshold

• Minimum value of the input signal required to detect the output.

• Minimum value of the input is defined as the threshold of the instrument.

• Minimum value of the input below which no output can be detected.

 BASIC DEFINITIONS

Drift

• The gradual shift in the indication or record of the instrument over an extended

period of time.

• The variation caused in the output of an instrument.

• This variation is not due any change in the input.

• Drift is due to internal temperature variations and lack of component stability.

 BASIC DEFINITIONS

Zero Stability

• The ability of an instrument to return to the zero reading after the input signal

comes back to the zero value after the variations due to temperature, pressure,

vibrations, magnetic effect, etc., have been eliminated.

 BASIC DEFINITIONS

Loading effect

• The incapability of a measuring system to measure, record, or control the input

in an undistorted form.

• It may occur in any of the three stages of measurement.

 BASIC DEFINITIONS

System Response

• The characteristics of a measuring instrument is to transmit the input signal with

all the relevant information.

• The behaviour of the measuring system under the varying conditions of input

with respect to time is known as the dynamic response.

 BASIC DEFINITIONS

System Response

Two types of dynamic inputs:

1. Steady-state periodic quantity: Magnitude has a definite repeating time cycle.

2. Transient magnitude: The time variation of the transient magnitude does not

repeat
 BASIC DEFINITIONS

Dynamic Characteristics

1. Speed of response
Retardation type
2. Measuring lag
Time delay type
 BASIC DEFINITIONS

Dynamic Characteristics

1. Speed of response:

The speed with which the measuring instrument responds to the changes in the

measured quantity.
 BASIC DEFINITIONS

Dynamic Characteristics

2. Measuring lag:

The time when an instrument begins to respond to a change in the measured

quantity.

• Lag is normally due to the natural inertia of the measuring system.

 BASIC DEFINITIONS

Dynamic Characteristics

1. Retardation type: measurement system responds instantaneously after the

changes in the input have occurred.

2. Time delay type: measuring system begins to respond after a dead time to the

applied input.

Dead time: the time required by the measuring system to begin its response to a

change in the quantity to be measured.

ERRORS IN MEASUREMENTS

• Measurements obtained are not completely accurate, as they are associated

with uncertainty.

• To analyse the measurement data, we need to understand the nature of

errors associated with the measurements.

• To investigate the causes or sources of the errors in measurement and

subsequently eliminate them.

ERRORS IN MEASUREMENTS

1. Systematic errors / Controllable errors

2. Random errors
ERRORS IN MEASUREMENTS
1. Systematic errors / Controllable errors

• If error the error deviates by a fixed amount from the true value.

• These errors are controllable in nature.

E.g.: Zero error
measurement of length using a scale.
measurement of current with inaccurately calibrated ammeters.

• Systematic errors cannot be eliminated by taking a large number of readings

and then averaging them out.

ERRORS IN MEASUREMENTS
1. Systematic errors / Controllable errors

Cause of systematic errors;

1. Calibration errors

2. Ambient conditions

3. Deformation of workpiece

4. Avoidable errors
1. Calibration errors

• A small amount of variation from the nominal value will be present in length

standards like slip gauges and engraved scales.

• Errors are due to Inertia and hysteresis effects.

• Calibration curves are used to minimize such variations

2. Ambient conditions

• It is essential to maintain the ambient conditions at internationally accepted

values of standard temperature (20 ºC) and pressure (760 mmHg) conditions.

• A small difference of 10 mmHg, results errors in the measurement.

E.g.: An increase in temperature of 1 ºC results in an increase in the length of C25

steel by 0.3 μm.

• For error-free results, a correction factor for temperature has to be provided.

3. Deformation of workpiece

• The stylus pressure applied during measurement affects the accuracy.

• Due to stylus pressure and elastic deformation and changes in workpiece shape

may occur.
4. Avoidable errors

These include the following;

• Datum errors

• Reading errors

• Errors due to parallax effect

• Effect of misalignment

• Zero errors
Transducers
Transducer

• Transfer efficiency

• Primary and Secondary transducers

• Electrical transducers

• Mechanical transducers

• Electronic transducers

• Relative comparison of each type of transducers

 Transducer

• Detector or sensing element.

• The transducer, may be electrical, mechanical, optical, magnetic, piezoelectric, etc.

• Converts the sensed information (i/p) into convenient form.

• Device that converts one form of energy into another form.

 Transfer efficiency

• The ratio of information sensed and delivered by the sensor, is transfer efficiency.
CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSDUCERS

1. Primary and secondary transducers

2. Based on the principle of transduction

3. Active and passive transducers

4. Analog and digital transducers

5. Direct and inverse transducers

6. Null and deflection transducers

 Primary and Secondary Transducers

1. Sensing or detecting element /Primary transducer

The function of this element is to respond to / sense a physical change

2. Transduction element / Secondary transducer

The function of a transduction element is to transform the output from the sensing

element to an analogous electrical output.

Primary and Secondary Transducers

Primary detector transducer stage with primary and secondary transducers

 Primary and Secondary Transducers

Primary detector
transducers(Mechanical)
Based on Principle of Transduction

• Based on how the input quantity is transduced into output i.e. capacitance,

resistance, and inductance values.

1. Capacitive: Capacitor microphone, Capacitive pressure gauge, dielectric gauge

2. Resistive: Resistance Strain gauge, RTD, Photoconductive cell, thermistor

3. Inductive: Magnetic circuit, Reluctance pickup, Differential transformer

Active and Passive Transducers

Passive transducer
Active transducer

1. Active transducers or self-generating type: They develop their own voltage or

current output.
• The energy is derived from the physical quantity being measured.
E.g.: thermocouples, photovoltaic cells.

2. Passive transducers or External powered type: They need external / auxiliary source
of power supply. E.g.: Resistive, Capacitive and Inductive ( LVDT)
Analog and Digital Transducers

• Based on the output generated.

• The output generated is a continuous function of time or is in discrete form.

Analog: Input quantity is converted into an analog output.

E.g.: LVDT, strain gauge, thermocouple, and thermistor

Digital: Input quantity is converted into an electrical signal.

E.g.: shaft encoders, linear displacement transducers
Direct and Inverse Transducers

Direct: Transforms a non-electrical variable into an electrical variable.

E.g. Thermocouple

Inverse: Transforms an electrical quantity into a non-electrical quantity.

E.g.: Piezoelectric transducer
• Voltage is given as the input, and its dimensions are changed causing a
mechanical displacement.
Intermediate Modifying and Terminating devices
 Intermediate Modifying and Terminating devices

The transduced signal is further modified and amplified by conditioning and

processing devices, so that the signal is appropriate before passing it on to the

output or terminating stage for display.

 Inherent Problems in Mechanical Systems

Design problems arise when the signals from the primary–secondary transducers

are fed into mechanical intermediate elements and these mechanical

intermediate elements, like linkages, gears, cams, etc., are inadequate, in

handling dynamic inputs

 Inherent Problems in Mechanical Systems

Kinematic Linearity

• When linkages are used as a mechanical amplifier, it should be designed

in such a way that it provides the same amplification (gain).

• The gain should be linear, otherwise result in a poor amplitude response.

 Inherent Problems in Mechanical Systems

Mechanical Amplification

• Gain = Mechanical advantage

 Inherent Problems in Mechanical Systems

Reflected Frictional Amplification

• The effect of frictional force is amplified and is reflected back to the input as a
magnified load, proportion to the gain between the friction and the input.
• This effect is referred as the reflected frictional amplification.

• The total reflected frictional force is given by: Ftfr = ΣAFfr

Ftfr = Total reflected frictional force (in N) at the input of the
system.
A= Mechanical amplification or gain
Ffr = Actual frictional force (in N) at its source.
 Inherent Problems in Mechanical Systems

Reflected Inertial Amplification

• The effects of inertial forces are amplified and reflected back to the input in
proportion to the gain

• The total reflected inertial force is given by: Ftir = ΣA ΔFir

Ftir = Total reflected inertial force (in N) at the input of the system,
A = Mechanical amplification or gain
ΔFir = Increment of the inertial force (in N) at any point in the system.
 Inherent Problems in Mechanical Systems

Amplification of Backlash and Elastic Deformation

• The consequences of backlash is lost motion.

• Lost motion occurs when an input does not generate the analogous displacement

at the output, results in a positional error and contributes to the uncertainty.

• At the output, both backlash and elastic deformation result in lost motion, which is

amplified by an amount equal to the gain between the source and the output.
 Inherent Problems in Mechanical Systems

Temperature Problems

• Temperature variations adversely affect the operation of the measuring system

• It is extremely difficult to maintain a constant-temperature environmental

condition for a general-purpose measuring system.

• The only option is to accept the effects due to temperature variations and devise

the methods to compensate temperature variations.

ELECTRICAL INTERMEDIATE MODIFYING DEVICES
 ELECTRICAL INTERMEDIATE MODIFYING DEVICES

• The major functions of intermediate modifying devices is to transduce

mechanical inputs into electrical signals.

• These signals will be modified or conditioned.

• Amplification of either voltage or power, is accomplished, depending on the

requirement of the terminating stage

 Input Circuitry

• Active transducer does not require minimum circuitry for their operation.

• Passive transducer require minimum circuitry for their operation.

Input Circuitry

Common forms of input circuitry employed in transduction are:

 1. Simple current-sensitive circuits

 2. Ballast circuits

3. Voltage-dividing circuits

4. Voltage-balancing potentiometer circuits

Input Circuitry - Simple current-sensitive circuits
 Input Circuitry
Simple current-sensitive circuits

Using Ohm’s law, the current indicated by the read-out circuit is given by the equation:
 Input Circuitry
Simple current-sensitive circuits

• Maximum current flows when k = 0, i.e.

when the current will be ei/Rr.

• The output variation or sensitivity is

greater for higher value of transducer

 Ballast Circuit
• An electrical ballast is a device placed in series with a load to limit the amount of current

in an electrical circuit.

• A ballast circuit is a modification of the current-sensitive circuit.

• A voltage-sensitive device is placed across the transducer in the circuit.

• Rb = ballast resistor.

• In absence of Rb, the indicator will not indicate any change with variation in Rt ;always

show full source voltage.

• It is necessary to incorporate some value of resistance in the circuit to ensure its proper

functioning.
Let e0 = the voltage across kRt
(transducer), the following equation
holds true:
Terminating devices
 Terminating devices

Presentation of processed data;

• Relative displacement

• Digital form

Relative displacement Digital form

• Scale and pointer • Odometer

• Pen tracing on chart • Rotating drum mechanical counter

 Cathode Ray Oscilloscope

A CRO is a voltage-sensitive device used to view, measure and analyze waveforms

Its advantage is that a beam of electrons with low inertia strikes the fluorescent

screen, generating an image that can rapidly change with varying voltage inputs to

the system.

The cathode ray tube (CRT) is the basic

functional unit of CRO.
Cathode Ray Tube
 Cathode Ray Tube

• The electron gun assembly comprises a heater, a cathode, a control grid, and accelerating anodes.

• When a cathode is heated, electrons are generated.

• The grid provides the control for of flow of electrons.

• The accelerating anodes, are positively charged, provides the striking velocity to the emitted

electron stream.

• The electron beam, gaining necessary acceleration, passes through horizontal and vertical

deflection plates, which provide the basic movements in the X and Y directions.

• In order to facilitate free movement of emitted electrons, vacuum is created within the tube.
Cathode Ray Oscilloscope
 Oscillographs

• The basic difference between a CRO and Oscillograph is;

• In CRO the output is visual in nature and in oscillograph it is traced on the paper.

Two types of oscillographs are;

1. Direct Writing-type Oscillographs

2. Light Beam Oscillographs

Direct Writing-type Oscillographs

• Consists of a stylus that traces an image on the moving paper by establishing

• direct contact.
• The stylus is current sensitive.
• A paper-transporting mechanism is required.
• The recording is by use of ink & moving the heated stylus on a paper.
• The recording is a time-based function of the input signal.
• As recording is by the movement of stylus on paper, a frictional drag is
created, which requires more torque.
 Light Beam Oscillographs

• Consists of a paper drive mechanism, a galvanometer, and an optical system for

transmitting current-sensitive galvanometer rotation to a displacement, that can

be recorded on a photographic film or paper.

• The galvanometer of the oscillograph works on the D’Arsonval principle.

• The input depends on mass moment of inertia of the coil.

• Sensitivity of the oscillograph is a function of the number of turns in the coil.

• It is essential to keep the mass moment of inertia at a minimum level.

End of Module