UNIT I

Concepts of Measurement

• Measurements( Ref 4, Chapter 1,pg no 1-11)

• Instrumentation( Ref 4, Chapter 1,pg no 1-11)
• Errors in measurements (Ref 4, Chapter 3,pg no 60)
• Calibration
• Standard (Ref 4, Chapter 5,pg no 181)

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• Since 1983, the metre has been internationally defined as the length of the path
travelled by light in vacuum during a time interval of 1/299 792 458 of a second. This
definition can be realised simply and accurately using modern techniques and the
speed of light is regarded to be a universal constant, making it ideal as the basis for
a length standard.
•  In 1889, a cylinder of platinum-iridium, the International Prototype of the
Kilogram (IPK), became the standard of the unit of mass for the metric system and
remained so for 130 years, before the current standard was adopted in 2019
• The International Committee for Weights and Measures (CIPM) approved
a redefinition of the SI base units in November 2018 that defines the kilogram by
defining the Planck constant to be exactly 6.62607015×10−34 kg⋅m2⋅s−1, effectively
defining the kilogram in terms of the second and the metre. The new definition took
effect on May 20, 2019
• Since 1967, the SI base unit for time is the SI second, defined as exactly "the
duration of 9,192,631,770 periods of the radiation corresponding to the transition
between the two hyperfine levels of the ground state of the caesium-133 atom" (at a
temperature of 0 K and at mean sea level).

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 Measurements

• Measurement: Comparison between a standard and what we want to

measure (the measurand).
• Two quantities are compared the result is expressed in numerical
values.

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 Basic requirements for a meaningful
measurement
• The standard used for comparison purposes must be accurately
defined and should be commonly accepted.
• The apparatus used and the method adopted must be provable
(verifiable).

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Two major functions of all branch of
engineering
• Design of equipment and processes
• Proper Operation and maintenance of equipment and
processes.

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Methods of Measurement

• Direct Methods

• Indirect Methods

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• DIRECT METHODS: In these methods, the unknown quantity
(called the measurand ) is directly compared against a standard.

• INDIRECT METHOD: Measurements by direct methods are not

always possible, feasible and practicable. In engineering applications
measurement systems are used which require need of indirect
method for measurement purposes.

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 Instruments and Measurement
Systems.
• Measurement involve the use of instruments as a physical means
of determining quantities or variables.

• Because of modular nature of the elements within it, it is

common to refer the measuring instrument as a MEASUREMENT
SYSTEM.

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 Evolution of Instruments.

a) Mechanical
b) Electrical
c) Electronic Instruments.

• MECHANICAL: These instruments are very reliable for static

and stable conditions. But their disadvantage is that they are
unable to respond rapidly to measurements of dynamic and
transient conditions.

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 Contd
• ELECTRICAL: It is faster than mechanical,
indicating the output are rapid than mechanical
methods. But it depends on the mechanical
movement of the meters. The response is 0.5 to
24 seconds.

• ELECTRONIC: It is more reliable than other

system. It uses semiconductor devices and weak
signal can also be detected.

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 Classification Of Instruments
• Absolute Instruments.
• Secondary Instruments.
ABSOLUTE: These instruments give the magnitude if the quantity
under measurement terms of physical constants of the
instrument.
SECONDARY: These instruments are calibrated by the comparison
with absolute instruments which have already been calibrated.

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 Further its classified as

• Deflection Type Instruments

• Null Type Instruments.

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• Functions of instrument and measuring system can be classified
into three. They are:
i) Indicating function.
ii) Recording function.
iii) Controlling function.
• Application of measurement systems are:
i) Monitoring of process and operation.
ii) Control of processes and operation.
iii) Experimental engineering analysis.

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 Types Of Instrumentation System

• Intelligent Instrumentation (data has been refined for the purpose

of presentation )
• Dumb Instrumentation (data must be processed by the observer)

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 Elements of Generalized Measurement
System
• Primary sensing element.
• Variable conversion element.
• Data presentation element.
• PRIMARY SENSING ELEMENT: The quantity under measurement
makes its first contact with the primary sensing element of a
measurement system.
• VARIABLE CONVERSION ELEMENT: It converts the output of the
primary sensing element into suitable form to preserve the
information content of the original signal.

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 Contd..

• DATA PRESENTATION ELEMENT: The information about the

quantity under measurement has to be conveyed to the personnel
handling the instrument or the system for monitoring, control or
analysis purpose.

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 Functional Elements of an
Instrumentation System

PRIMARY VARIABLE VARIABLE DATA DATA

QUANTITY CONVER MANIPULATI- TRANSMISSIO PRESENTA
TO BE SENSING
-SION ON ELEMENT -N ELEMENT TION
MEASURED ELEMENT ELEMENT ELEMENT

DATA CONDITIONING ELEMENT

TERMINATING
DETECTOR INTERMEDIATE STAGE STAGE
TRANSDUCER
STAGE

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 Static Characteristics Of Instruments
And Measurement Systems ( Ref 4,
Chapter 2)
• Application involved measurement of quantity that are either
constant or varies slowly with time is known as static.
Accuracy
Drift
Dead Zone
Static Error
Sensitivity
Reproducibility

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 Static Characteristics

Static correction
Scale range
Scale span
Noise
Dead Time
Hysteresis.
Linearity

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• ACCURACY: It is the closeness with an instrument reading
approaches the true value of the quantity being measured.
• TRUE VALUE: True value of quantity may be defined as the average
of an infinite no. of measured value.
• SENSITIVITY is defined as the ratio of the magnitude of the output
response to that of input response.

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• STATIC ERROR: It is defined as the difference between the
measured value and true value of the quantity.
A=Am-At
Where Am =measured value of quantity
At =true value of quantity.
It is also called as the absolute static error.

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• SCALE RANGE: The scale range of an instrument is defined as the
difference between the largest and the smallest reading of the
instrument.
Suppose highest point of calibration is Xmax units while the lowest is
Xmin units, then the instrument range is between Xmin and Xmax.
• SCALE SPAN: Scale span or instrument span is given as Scale span=
Xmax - Xmin
It is the difference between highest and lowest point of calibration.

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• Reproducibility is specified in terms of scale readings over a
given period of time.
• Drift is an undesirable quality in industrial instruments because it
is rarely apparent and cannot be maintained.
It is classified as
a) Zero drift
b) Span drift or sensitivity drift
c) Zonal drift.

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Dynamic Characteristics of
Measurement System
( Ref 4, Chapter 4)

• Speed of response
• Measuring lag
• Fidelity
• Dynamic error

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.
• SPEED OF RESPONSE :It is defined as the rapidity with which a
measurement system responds to changes in measured quantity. It
is one of the dynamic characteristics of a measurement system.
• FIDELITY: It is defined as the degree to which a measurement
system indicates changes in the measured quantity without any
dynamic error.

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 Dynamic Error

• It is the difference between the true value of the quantity

changing with time and the value indicated by the measurement
system if no static error is assumed. It is also called measurement
error. It is one the dynamic characteristics.

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 Measuring Lag
• It is the retardation delay in the response of a measurement
system to changes in the measured quantity. It is of 2 types:
• Retardation type: The response begins immediately after a
change in measured quantity has occurred.
• Time delay: The response of the measurement system begins
after a dead zone after the application of the input.

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 Errors in Measurement
• Limiting Errors (Guarantee Errors)
• Known Error
Classification

Gross Systematic Or Random Or

Error Cumulative Residual Or
Error Accidental
Error

Instrumental Environmental Observational

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Gross Error
• Human Mistakes in reading , recording and calculating
measurement results.
• The experimenter may grossly misread the scale.
• E.g.: Due to oversight instead of 21.5oC, they may read as 31.5oC
They may transpose the reading while
recording (like reading 25.8oC and
record as 28.5oC)

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 Systematic Errors
• INSTRUMENTAL ERROR: These errors arise due
to 3 reasons-
• Due to inherent short comings in the
instrument
• Due to misuse of the instrument
• Due to loading effects of the instrument
• ENVIRONMENTAL ERROR: These errors are due
to conditions external to the measuring device.
These may be effects of temperature, pressure,
humidity, dust or of external electrostatic or
magnetic field.
• OBSERVATIONAL ERROR: The error on account
of parallax is the observational error.

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 Residual error

This is also known as residual error. These errors are due to a

multitude of small factors which change or fluctuate from one
measurement to another. The happenings or disturbances about
which we are unaware are lumped together and called “Random”
or “Residual”. Hence the errors caused by these are called random
or residual errors.

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 Arithmetic Mean

• The most probable value of measured variable is

the arithmetic mean of the number of readings
taken.
• It is given by x1  x2  .....xn  x
x 
n n
Where = arithmetic mean
x
• x1,x2,.. x3= readings of samples
• n= number of readings

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 Deviation
• Deviation is departure of the observed reading
from the arithmetic mean of the group of readings.

d1  x1  X
d 2  x2  X
d 3  x3  X
d n  xn  X
d1  d 2  d 3  .....  d n  0
ie
 ( x1  X )  ( x2  X )  ( x3  X )  ..  ( xn  X )
 ( x1  x2  x3  ...  xn )  n X
 nX  nX  0

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 Standard Deviation

• The standard deviation of an infinite number of

data is defined as the square root of the sum of
the individual deviations squared divided by the
number of readings.

S .D   
2 2 2
d  d  d  ...  d
1 2 3
2

4  d 2

 20observation 
n n

S .D  s 
2 2 2 2
d  d  d  ...  d
1 2 3 4

 d 2

 20observation 
n 1 n 1

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Variance

Variance  S .D   
2 2

 d 2

n
 20observation 
Variance  S .D   s
2 2

 d 2

n 1
 20observation 

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 Probable Error

• Probable error of one reading(r1)=0.6745s

• Probable error of mean (rm)

r1
rm 
n 1

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 Problem

Question: The following 10 observation were recorded when

measuring a voltage:
41.7,42.0,41.8,42.0,42.1,
41.9,42.0,41.9,42.5,41.8 volts.
1. Mean
2. Standard Deviation
3. Probable Error
4. Range.

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 Answer

• Mean=41.97 volt
• S.D=0.22 volt
• Probable error=0.15 volt
• Range=0.8 volt.

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 Calibration

• Calibration of all instruments is important since it

affords the opportunity to check the instruments
against a known standard and subsequently to find
errors and accuracy.
• Calibration Procedure involve a comparison of the
particular instrument with either
 a Primary standard
a secondary standard with a higher accuracy than
the instrument to be calibrated.
an instrument of known accuracy.

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 Standards

A standard is a physical representation of a unit of measurement.

The term ‘standard’ is applied to a piece of equipment having a
known measure of physical quantity.

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Types of Standards
• International Standards (defined based on
international agreement )

• Primary Standards (maintained by national

standards laboratories)

• Secondary Standards ( used by industrial

measurement laboratories)

• Working Standards ( used in general

laboratory)

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WHAT IS DATA ACQUISITION?

• Data acquisition, or DAQ as it is often referred, is the process of

digitizing data from the world around us so it can be displayed,
analyzed, and stored in a computer. A simple example is the process
of measuring the temperature in a room as a digital value using a
sensor such as a thermocouple. Modern data acquisition systems can
include the addition of data analysis and reporting software, network
connectivity, and remote control and monitoring options.
• Components of a Data Acquisition System
• All data acquisition systems consist of three essential elements –
Sensor, Signal Conditioning, and Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC)

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Static Performance of Instrument

• SYSTEMATIC CHARACTERISTICS
• Range
• Span
• Linearity
• Sensitivity
• Environmental effects
• Hysteresis
• Resolution
• Death space
Range

• The input range defines the minimum and maximum value

of the variable to measure.
• The output rage defines the minimum and maximum value
of the signal given by the transducer.
• Assume a temperature transducer which temperature
range is from 100°C to 250°C and the output range is given
from 4 to 10 mV.
Span

• The input span is the maximum change of the input and the
output span is the maximum change of the output.
• Input span:
I MAX  I MIN

• Output span:
OMAX  OMIN
 Linearity

• It is normally desirable that the

output reading of an Omax
instrument is linearly
proportional to the quantity
being measured.
• An instrument is considered if
the relationship between
output an input can be fitted in
a line. Omin
Imin Imax
 OMAX  OMIN 
O  OMIN    I  I MIN 
 I MAX  I MIN 
• No-linearity is defined as the maximum deviation of the
output over the straight line

No-Linearity can be quoted by: N I   OI  K  I  a

Maximum % of No-Linearity : N max I 

 100
OMAX  OMIN
Sensitivity

• The sensitivity of measurement is a measure of the change

in instrument output that occurs when the quantity being
measured changes by a given amount.
• Thus, sensitivity is the ratio:
Hysteresis and Backlash

• Careful observation of the output/input relationship of a

block will sometimes reveal different results as the signals
vary in direction of the movement.
• Mechanical systems will often show a small difference in
length as the direction of the applied force is reversed.
• The same effect arises as a magnetic field is reversed in a
magnetic material.
• This characteristic is called hysteresis
• Where this is caused by a mechanism that gives a sharp
change, such as caused by the looseness of a joint in a
mechanical joint, it is easy to detect and is known as
backlash.
THANK YOU

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