ELECTRONIC

INSTRUMENTATION(EC010704)

Reference Books
• Measurement System : Ernest O Doebelin
• Electronic Instrumentation : H.S Kalsi
 Electronic Instrumentation
• Instrumentation is a branch of engineering
that deals with the measurement and control
of different parameters.
• or
• Instrumentation is defined as "the art
and science of measurement and control". 

• Measuring is used to monitor a process or

operation
 UNIT 1

Objectives of
Engineering Measurement
 Objectives
• At the end of this Unit

Basic measuring system

Performance characteristics of
instruments
Errors in measurement
Units-Dimensions Standards.
Instrument calibration.
 Objectives Of Engineering Measurements
1. Measurements of system parameter
information.
2. Automatic control of a system.
3. Simulation.
4. Experimental design.
5. To perform various manipulation.
6. Testing of materials and quality control.
7. Verification of scientific theories.
 Basic Measuring System
• A measurement assigns a specific value to a
physical variable. The physical variable now
becomes the measured variable.
• A measurement system is a tool used to measure
the physical variable.
• Methods of measurement can be classified in to
two
• Direct methods
– Un known quantity is directly compared against a
standard
– Result is expressed as a numerical number
• In direct methods
– In engineering application measurement systems
uses this methods
 Simple measuring system
Primary sensing Transducer Signal conditioning Data trans Data processing
element element element element

Data display

Transducer

Data recording
 Basic Measuring System
• Four Parts of Measurement System

– Sensor-Transducer Stage
– Signal Conditioning Stage
– Output Stage
 Sensor
• The sensor is a physical element that uses some
natural phenomenon to sense the variable being
measured.

• The transducer changes this sensed information

into a detectable signal form (electrical,
mechanical, optical, etc.)

• A Transducer is a device which converts one form

of energy into some other form of energy

• It is also known as 'Pickup Element'.

 Sensor
• Mainly Transducers can be classified into two types on
the basis of power supply required
• Active Transducers
• Passive Transducers.
• Active transducers are those which does not requires
external power supply for their operation.
• For example: Photo Voltage Cell, Piezo Electric Crystal,
Generator etc.
• Passive Transducers: Passive Transducers are those
transducers which requires external power supply for
their operation.
• For Example: Resistive, Inductive and Capacitive
Transducers.
 Signal Conditioner
• Its role comes into play when the output of
transducer or primary sensing element is very
low. It is used to amplify or modify the incoming
signal from transducer according to output
requirement.
• When noise is present in signal, filters need to be
used to eliminate it.
• If the processor operates only on digital signal,
A/D and D/A converters must be used at the
input and output of the processor
• In other words Signal Conditioning is done to
improve the quality of output of measurement
system.
 Signal Conditioner
• This optional intermediate stage can be used to
increase

– The magnitude of the signal through

amplification,

– Remove portions of the signal through some

filtering technique,

– Provide mechanical or optical linkage

between the transducer and the output range.
 O/P stage
• The output unit of a measurement system is
consists of a display and storage unit

• It is used to display or analyze the final output

of the measurement system.

• The examples of Output unit can be any

output device like CRO (Cathode Ray
Oscilloscope) or XY recorder.
 Comparison
Digital Signal Analog Signal
• Data Storage can be
• Difficult to store the
easily done
signal/information
• Processing of digital • Processing of signal is
information is very easy difficult
• Will not interfere with
• Will interfere with other
other signals, so less signals, so affected with
affected with Noise. Data noise. Transmission
transmission quality is quality is comparatively
good poor
• Repeaters are required • Repeaters are not
for long distance
required
communication
Performance characteristics of
instruments

JOBY JOHN 15
 Performance characteristics of instruments
• A knowledge of the performance
characteristics of an instrument is essential for
selecting the most suitable instrument for
specific measuring jobs.

• Performance characteristics of an instrument

are mainly divided into two.

• Static characteristics
• Dynamic characteristics
 STATIC CHARACTERISTICS
• The set of criteria defined for the instrument
which are used to measure the quantities that
are varying slowly with time or constant is called
static characteristics.

• OR
• The static characteristics of an instrument are
considered for instruments which are used
to measure an unvarying process condition.

• Some criteria will be set to for the measurement

of quantities that are either constant or vary
slowly is called static characteristics
 STATIC CHARACTERISTICS
• All the static performance characteristics are
obtained by one form or another of a process
called calibration.

• It provides a opportunity to check the instrument

against a known standard and to find the errors
and accuracy.

• Calibration involves comparison of an instrument

with either primary standard or a secondary
standard or an instrument with known accuracy
 STATIC CHARACTERISTICS
• There are a number of related definitions (or
characteristics) such as
• Accuracy & Precision
• Sensitivity
• Linearity & Hysteresis
• Repeatability and Reproducibility
• Resolution, 
• Drift,
• Span
• Threshold etc.
 STATIC CHARACTERISTICS

• Accuracy: The degree of exactness (closeness) of

a measurement compared to the expected (true)
value.
– It is expressed in terms of errors
• Static error = measured value – true value
• Precision: A measure of the consistency or
reproducibility of measurements, i.e. successive
readings does not differ.
– (Precision is the consistency of the instrument output
for a given value of input).
– Accuracy can be improved by calibration but not
precision
 STATIC CHARACTERISTICS
• Resolution: The smallest change in a measured
variable to which an instrument will respond.

• Sensitivity: The ratio of the change in output

(response) of the instrument to a change of input
or measured variable.

• Drift : Gradual shift in the meassured value ,over an

extended period, when there is no change in input.

• Threshold: The minimum value of input for which

the device just starts to respond
• Range/Span: The minimum and maximum value of quantity so that the
device is capable of measuring
 STATIC CHARACTERISTICS
Repeatability: A measure of how well the output returns to a given value when the
same precise input is applied several times.
Or
The ability of an instrument to reproduce a certain set of reading within a given
accuracy.
 Linearity

• Input output relationship of a device must be linear

i.e, Y= mx +C
• But practical systems shows small deviations from the
linear shape ( allowed within the specified limits)
 Hysteresis
• Input is increased from
negative value, output
increases as indicated by
curve 1
• Then the input is steadily
decreased , output does not
follow the same path , but
lag by a certain value as
indicated by curve 2
• The difference between the
two curves is called
Hysterisis

JOBY JOHN 24
 DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS
• The response of instruments or systems to dynamic
I/P s are also functions of time.

• Instruments rarely respond instantaneously to

changes in the measured variables

• Instead, they exhibit slowness or sluggishness due to

such things as mass, thermal capacitance, fluid
capacitance or electric capacitance
 DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS

The dynamic characteristics of an instrument are

• Speed of response

• Fidelity

• Time delay or lag

• Dynamic error
 DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS

• Speed of Response:

It is the ability of a system to respond to a sudden

changes in the input signal/quantity

• Fidelity:

It is the degree to which an instrument indicates

the changes in the measured variable without
dynamic error ( Indication of how much faithfully
system responds to the changes in input).
 DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS
• Lag:
It is the retardation or delay in the response of an
instrument to changes in the measured variable.
Two types : Process lag(process) and Control lag
(Instrument)

• Dynamic Error:
It is the difference between the true values of a
quantity changing with time and the value indicated
by the instrument, if no static error is assumed.
• NOTE : The dynamic and transient behavior of
the instrument is as important as the static
behavior.
 DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS
Inputs used to study characteristics of a system are
Impulse signal
Step Signal
Ramp signal
Exponential signal (sinusoidal signal)

Transient Response
Response exhibited by the system suddenly after an input change

Steady State response

Response exhibited by the system at infinite time after an input change
 Time Response of a System
• Peak Time
Time taken to reach the maximum overshoot
•Delay Time
Time taken to reach 50% of the final expected value at the first time
Time constant
Time required to for the output to reach 63.2% of its final value
• Settling Time
Time taken for the output oscillations are died out completely or diminished
within the allowed limits
• Rise Time
Time taken by the system to reach the desired value first time in the transient
stage, when the input is changed from one state to another
• Over shoot
Maximum deviation of the output from input in the transient stage.
Percentage of overshoot = (Max. Overshoot/ Final expected value)*100
Time Response of a System

JOBY JOHN 31
Error

JOBY JOHN 32
 Error
• Error is the difference between the true value of
the variable and the measured value.
• Errors are classified as

1. Gross error /Human error (human mistakes

and instrument malfunctions)

2. Random errors (Noise/Interference)

3. Systematic errors (which may be either

constant or variable)-Due to shortcoming of the
instruments
 Random Errors
Associated to any measurement or electronic
signal we find random, non-deterministic
variations as the result of different sources:
• Electronic noise (Johnson, shot,..)
• Interference
• Even though interference is systematic ,for
the easiness of modeling, it can be rendered
as random.
All the random sources are independent.
JOBY JOHN 34
 Gross error
• Instrumentation misuse, calculation errors and
other human mistakes (mistakes in reading,
recording )are the main source of Gross errors.
• Gross error mainly occur due to carelessness or
lack of experience of a human being or incorrect
adjustments of instruments

• These errors can be minimized by

– 1.Taking great care while taking reading, recordings
and calculating results.
– 2. Taking multiple readings preferably by different
persons.
 Systematic errors

A constant uniform deviation in the operation

of an instrument is known as systematic
error.

• There are three types of systematic errors as

– Instrumental errors
– Environmental errors
– Observational errors
 Systematic Errors
 Instrumental errors
These errors are mainly due to following three
reasons
• Short-comings of instrument
These are because of the mechanical structure of
the instruments eg. Friction in the bearings of
various moving parts, irregular spring tensions,
hysteresis, gear backlash, variation in air gap etc.
• Ellimination.
– Selecting proper instrument and the transducer for
the measurement.
– Recognize the effect of such errors and apply the
proper correction factors.
– Calibrate the instrument carefully against standard.
 Systematic errors
  INSTRUMENTAL ERRORS
• Misuse of instrument
  A good instrument if used in abnormal way gives
misleading results.
Poor initial adjustments,
Improper zero setting,
Using leads of high resistance.
Elimination: Use the instrument intelligently & Correctly
•  Loading effects
Loading effects due to
Improper way of using the instrument
Elimination: Use the instrument intelligently & Correctly
 Systematic Errors
  Observational Errors
Error introduced by the observer
Few souces are:
• Parallax error while reading the meter,
• wrong scale selection,
• habits of individual obsever
• Elimination
Use the
• instrument with mirrors,
• instrument with knife edge pointers,
• Instrument having digital display
 Systematic Errors
Environmental Errors (due to the External Conditions)
• The various factors : Temperature changes,
Pressure, vibratons, Thermal emf., stray
capacitance, cross capacitance, effect of External
fields, Aging of equipments and Frequency
sensitivity of an instrument.
Elimination
• Using proper correction factors and using the
instrument Catalogue
• Using Temperature & Pressure control methods
etc.
• Reducing the effect of dust, humidity on the
components in the instruments.
• The effects of external fields can be minimized by
using the magnetic or electrostatic shields of
screens.
 Error due to Other Factors
 
• Effect of the Time on Instruments

– There is a possibility of change in calibration error

in the instrument with time. This may be called
ageing of the instrument.
• Mechanical Error
Friction between stationary and rotating parts and
residual torsion in suspension wire cause errors in
instruments. So, checking should be applied.
Generally, these errors may be checked from time
to time.